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KinVJtWMXfS} 



FLORIDA STATE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 
E. H. Sbllards^, state geologist 



Bulletin No. 1 



A PRELIMINARY REPORT 



on the 



Underground Water Supply 



OF 



Central Florida 



BY 

E. H. SELLARDS 



CAPITAL PUBLISHING CO., State Printer. 
Tallahassee, Pla. 



FLORIDA STATE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 
E. H. Sellards^ state geologist 



Bulletin No. 1 



A PRELIMINARY REPORT 



ON THE 



Underground Water Supply 



OP 



Central Florida 



BY 

E. H. SELLARDS 



Prepared in Co-operation with the United States 
Geological Survey. 



capital publishing CO., state Printer, 
Tallahassee, Fla. 



li>08 



< 



1 1909 



LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. 



To His Excellency, Hon. N. B. Broward, 

Governor of Florida. 

Sir : — ' 

I have the honor to submit herewith for publication as 
l^ulJetin No. 1, of the Florida State Geological Survey, a 
preliminary report of the underground water supply of 
central Florida, This bulletin has grown out of the 
co-operative investigations between the State and the Na- 
tional Surveys made in accordance with plans approved 
by you at the beginning of the year. Tlieplan of co-operative 
work provides for -an investigation of the water supply 
and of the general geology of the entire State. This pre- 
liminary bulletin is based upon the field work done by the 
State Survey during the fall of 1907, and is issued at this 
time to meet the needs of the citizens of the State who 
desire the information obtained at as early a date a« 

possible. 

Respectfully, 

E. H. SELLARDS, 

State Geolojjist. 
Tallahassee, Florida, 

July 1, 1908. 



'&' 



CONTENTS. 



Page 

Introduction and acknowledgments 7 

The area treated 8 

The topography of central Florida i) 

Rolling high lands 9 

Flatwo»ds 9 

Hammock 9 

Scrub 9 

The geology of central Florida 10 

Underground water : General discussion 12 

Source i 12 

Annual rainfall 12 

Disposition of rainfall 13 

Water eivaporated without entering the earth 13 

Surface run-ofC 14 

Rainfall entering the earth 15 

Amount of water available for the underground supply 16 

Underground circulation of water 17 

Cause of movement 17 

Rate of movement 17 

Porosity of the material 18 

Siee of pores in water bearing medium 18 

Pressure 18 

Temperature of the water 18 

Depth of underground water 18 

Hydrogen sulphide in underground water 19 

Sulphur water not •vidence of beds of sulphur 21 

Sulphur deposits formed from hydrogen sulphide 21 

Absence of hydrogen sulphide from certain waters in Fla.. . 22 

Amount of hydrogen sulphide influenced by pressure 22 

Underground water of central Florida 24 

Water of the surface formations 24 

Character 24 

Shallow wells 26 

Contamination 26 

Water of the deep formations 27 

Water of the Vicksburg Limestone 27 

Source 27 

Water level 29 

Quantity 31 

Other water-bearing formations , , , 31 



CONTENTS. 

Page. 

' Quality of the water of the deep formations 33 

Movement of water of the deep formations 33 

Direction of movement 34 

Rate of movement 34 

Underground streams 34 

Escape of water of the deep formations 35 

Springs 35 

Wells 38 

Contamination 42 

Artesian prospects 44 

Geological results of underground circulation 46 

Solution 46 

Amount of mineral solids removed 47 

Underground cavities 48 

Sink holes 49 

Disappearing streams 53 

Solution basins 55 

Deposition and replacement 56 

Drainage of lakes, ponds and swamp lands by deep wells. ... 58 

Natural drainage wells 58 

Drainage of Lake Jackson 58 

Drainage of Alachua Lake. . •. 59 

Bored wells 60 

Size of well 61 

Structure of wells 61 

Depth of water above mouth of pipe 62 

Distance from top of pipe to underground wat'er level . . 62 

Drainage by wells at Orlando 62 

Disposal of sewage by bored wells 64 

Water analyses 68 

Springs 70 

Wells 76 

Water supply tables 83 

General water resources 83 

Springs 86 

Wells 88 

Public water supply 94 

Index 97 

Corrections 104 



CONTENTS. 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

Plates. 

Pacing page 
I Silver Springs;, in Marion County Frontispiece 

II Blue Springs, in Marion County. 38 

III Map of area of artesian flow in Florida 44 

IV Limestone sink near Sumterville, Sumter County 50 
V Limestone sink near Sumterville, Sumter County 52 

VI Weekiwachee Spring in Hernando County and 

Alachua sink in Alachua County 60 

Figures. 

Page. 

1 Sketch illustrating the relation of the under 

ground water level to Silver and Blue Springs.. 32 

2 Sketch illustrating the relation of uijderground 

water to surface contour in Suwannee and 
Columbia Counties 32 

3 Sketch illustrating surface contour a/nd under- 

ground water level through a part of Alachua 

and Levy Counties 40 

4" Sketch illustrating surface contour and under- 
ground water level through Marion County 
from Citra to a point four miles south of O'cala 40 

5 Sketch illustrating the varying depth of wells 

entering the limestone 41 

6. Sketch illustrating danger of contamination of 
a well by impure water entering through a 
sink 42 



A PRELIMINARY REPORT ON THE UNDERGROUND WATER 
SUPPLY Of CENTRAL FLORIDA. 



BY E. H. SELLARDS. 

The study of the underground water supply of Florida 
was begun by the writer, while acting as field assistant 
to the United States Geological Survey in the summer 
of 1906. This work was interrupted on the part of the 
National Survey in November, 1906. During the winter 
of 1906 and 1907, however, it was continued by the writer, 
then acting as Geologist of the Florida State Experiment 
Station. A preliminary bulletin on the underground 
water supply of the State was published in March, 
1907.* With the organization of the State Geological 
Survey this work was contiuTied. Florida investigations 
were renewed by the National Survey in the fall of 1907, 
and the work is now being carried on as co-operative work 
between the State and the National Geological Surveys. 
The report now issued on the central peninsular section 
is in the nature of a report of progress in the study of the 
underground water resources of the State, and is based 
upon the work of the State Survey during the fall season 
of 1907. 

Mr. Herman Gunter has acted as the writer's assist- 
ant in this work and to him is due the credit of obtain- 
ing much of the detailed information contained in the 
water supply tables. Mr. E. Peck Greene has obtained 
for the Survey most of the photographs which accompany 
this bulletin. 

The water analyses have been obtained from various 
sources, credit being given in connection with each analy- 
sis. A number of the samples have been analyzed in the 
laboratory of the U. S. Geological Survey, forming a part 
of the co-operative work between the State and the Na- 
tional Surveys. The Director of the State Agricultural 
Experiment Station has kindly supplied sev eral analy ses, 

♦Occurrence and Use of Artesian and Other Undergiound Water, 
Florida Agricultural Experiment Station. Bulletin 89. E. H. 
Sellards, Ph. D. 



g FLORIDA OEOLOGICAJL SURVEY. 

while other analyses have been made especially for this 
report in the office of the State Chemist. 

The writer is indebted to authors of a number of pub- 
lications both of general and of special nature for data 
utilized in the preparation of this bulletin. Credit is 
given in the text wherever practicable. Among publica- 
tions consulted relating especially to central Florida are 
the following: Water Supply and Irrigation Papers. 
U. S. Geological Survey, No. 102, 1904; No. 114, 1905; 
No. 149, 1905 ; Bulletins U. S. Geological Survey No. 84, 
1892; No. 264, 1905; No. 298, 1906; Florida Agricultural 
Experiment Station, Bulletin No. 89, 1907. The reports 
on the underground water of the adjoining States of 
Alabama and Georgia, made by the respective State Sur- 
veys, have contributed to an understanding of the under- 
ground water conditions in Florida. 

The thanks of the Survey are due to the many well 
drillers of the State w^ho have kindly furnished data 
regarding wells drilled by them. To many well-owners, 
superintendents of city water supply, and other citizens, 
the Survey is likewise indebted for information and as- 
sistance. 

It may be added that this publication is introductory 
and is not final, even for the limited area treated. Much 
detailed information that is desired is lacking. An im- 
portant part of this information can be supplied in the 
course of time from well records and samples. Complete 
sets of samples from deep wells in various parts of the 
State will do much to determine doubtful questions of 
geological structure. The assistance of well drillers, which 
has been of much benefit in the past, will be appreciated 
in completing this data in the future. 

The Area Treated. 

The area considered in detail in this bulletin comprises 
the following counties : Alachua, Columbia, Citrus, Ham- 
ilton, Hernando, Lake, Levy, Marion, Pasco, Sumter and 
Suwannee.* The section as a whole extends in a north and 

*For the location of these counties in the State, see map facing 
page 44. . i .i 



UNDERGROUND WATER SHPPLT. 9 

south direction a distance of about 175 miles from the 
northern line of the State, and is from 50 to 75 miles in 
width. The western boundary is formed by the Withla- 
coochee and Suwannee rivers and the Gulf coast. Thi« 
section is the principal large area of peninsular Florida 
having Oligocene limestone at or near the surface. This 
limestone is best exposed in the central part of the area, 
although even here it is not continuously exposed, but is 
covered locally with irregularly deposited clays, and by a 
surface mantle of sand. To the south, east and north, 
the limestone disappears beneath later formations consist- 
ing of clays, shales, and limestones. 

Topography of Central Peninsular Florida. 

In its general topography, central Florida is for the 
most part rolling. The topographic types may be grouped 
under the heads of rolling pine lands, flatwoods, ham- 
mocks, and scrub lands. 

The rolling pine lands are underlaid by pervious de- 
posits and are well drained. This type includes by far the 
largest part of this section. It is characterized by rounded 
hills and solution basins. 

The term "flatwoods" is applied to the level section 
underlaid by impervious clay formations. These flatwoods 
are often partly covered with water during the rainy sea- 
son and are popularly supposed to consist of low lands. 
There is, however, no necessary relation between surface 
elevation and this type ■ f land. Not infrequently flat- 
woods lie at the top of plateaus. This is the case in north- 
eastern Alachua County, where flatwoods occur at an ele- 
vation of from 150 to 175 feet. Central west Alachua 
County, on the other hand, with an elevation of not more 
than 70 or 80 feet, consists of rolling pine lands. 

The hammocks are underlaid, as a rule, by limestones 
and marls or other calcareous materials. The scrub 
growth occurs usually in deep sand, often covering low 
sand dunes. 

In regard to surface elevation, much of this area lies 
below the hundred-foot contour line. With the exception 
of some of the hills, the greatest elevation reached within 
the area scarcel}^ exceeds 200 feet. 

2-GeoBull 



10 florida geological survey. 

Geology. 

The geology of the section treated in this bulletin will 
be given only in so far as is necessary to an understanding 
of the underground water conditions. A more detailed 
account of the geology is rendered unnecessary at this time 
by the fact that the State Survey will have for publica- 
tion at an early date a special bulletin on the geology 
and stratigraphy of the State, the bulletin on this sub- 
ject forming a part of the co-operative work between the 
State and the National Geological Surveys. 

A thick limestone of Lower Oligocene age forms the 
foundation rock of the peninsula. This limestone is part 
of an extensive formation which reaches from Louisiana 
through southern Mississippi, Alabama and Georgia to 
Florida. It received in early publications the name of the 
Vicksburg Limestone from its typical exposure at Vicks- 
burg, Mississippi. In character this limestone is, as a 
rule, soft and friable. It contains, however, large masses 
of flint, either irregularly bedded or occurring in the 
limestone as ^-horsebacks." These flint masses often form 
the backbone of local ridges and hills. This is due 
to the fact that the flint masses resist wear very much 
longer than the surrounding limestone, and hence stand 
out as ridges. The thickness of this foundation lime- 
stone is undetermined. The most distinctive feature of 
this limestone is the abundance of Foraminifera occur- 
ring in it. The limestone, as typically developed, is in 
fact made up largely of the shells of Foraminifera, espe- 
cially of the genus OrMtoides. Along with the Foramin- 
ifera. occur many other marine invertebrates, among which 
lt>ivalves, mollusks and corals predominate. 

The formation known as the Ocala Limestone lies above 
the Vicksburg and resembles it in character. It has not 
been fully demonstrated that the Ocala Limestone may 
not be a local phase of the Vicksburg. As a matter of con- 
venience the term '^Vicksburg-' as used in this report in- 
cludes the Ocala Limestone. 

These limestones form a mild anticline, the crest of 
which runs in a north and south direction through the 
center of the peninsula. The arch of this anticline rises 



UNDERGROUND WATER SUPPLY. 11 

from the west coast to the center of the State, the slope 
of the top surface not exceeding one or two feet per mile. 
From the broad top of the crest in the center of the 
State the limestone dips rapidly to the east. A similar, 
'although less rapid dip occurs to the south. Well rec- 
ords have not been obtained in sufficient detail to deter- 
»mine whether or not the Vicksburg also dips to the north 
lin north Columbia County. A mild dip in that direction 
is possible, although the limestone comes to the surface 
again in Georgia. The top surface of the limestone is 
irregular, due to erosion. It is difficult on this account to 
determine its dip even approximately. Moreover, it is un- 
safe to assume that the present surface slope of the Vicks- 
burg Limestone represents the dip of the formation. It 
is probable that erosion hae been more rapid along the 
crest of the anticline than at the low lying and partly pro- 
tected sides. The original dip may, therefore, have been 
somewhat greater than the present surface slope. 

Following the formation of this basal limestone, a part 
at least of the area was sufficiently elevated to become dry 
land. The land as first formed appears to have been am 
island or chain of islands occupying central peninsular 
Florida, including probably parts of Columbia, Alachua, 
Levy, Marion, Sumter, Citrus and Hernando Counties. 
Subsequently marine deposits were formed around the 
edge of this land area, not only to the south and east, but 
also to the north and northwest. Upper Oligocene lime- 
stones, probably a northward extension of the Tampa 
Limestone, are reported from northern Columbia and 
Suwannee Counties.* The Hawthorne formation of Upper 
Oligocene age occurs in northeast Alachua County, and to 
the south in Pasco County. Water-bearing Miocene beds 
follow the Oligocene and have been identified from east 
Alachua and Lake Counties. Pliocene clays occur irregu- 
larly over central Florida, lying usually beneath a sur- 
face deposit of sand probably of Pleistocene age. 

*Dall, W. H.— Bull, U. S. Geol. Siir. 84, p. 121, 1892. 



UNDERGROUND WATER: GENERAL DISCUSSION. 



Source. 



Eainfall : — The chief source of underground water is 
the rainfall. Water vaporized through the energy of the 
sun passes into the atmosphere and is precipitated over 
the land as rain or condensed as dew or fog. The vapor 
is supplied to the atmosphere by evaporation, principally, 
from the ocean, which, occupying three-fourths of the 
earth's surface, is continuously exposed to the sun's rays. 
To the vapor from the ocean is added that arising fr^om 
inland waters, from the dry land surface of the earth, and 
from the leaves of plants. 

Other Sources: — The underground water depending 
directly upon the rainfall is added to by water escaping 
from streams during high water stages. The water in 
streams during flood seasons not infrequently rises above 
the water level of the surrounding country. In this easel 
water escapes from the streams and joins the under- 
ground water supply. Springs which flow into the rivers 
may, during high water stages of the river, reverse their 
flow and conduct water with great rapidity into the un- 
derground water horizon. The amount thus added under 
the conditions existing in Florida is sometimes very con- 
siderable. This phenomenon is described in more detail 
in connection with some of the springs along the Suwan- 
nee River (p. 38) . 

Small additions to the underground water supply may 
come through any one of a number of othei? possible 
sources, but the total amount thus added is relatively 
amall and may be omitted in a general discussion.* 

Annual Rainfall. 

The annual rainfall is the measure of the column of 
water that would accumulate at any spot in the course of 
a year, if all that falls should be preserved. The measure- 

*A recent discussion of possible sources of underground water 
other than rainfall will be found in Bulletin 319, U. 13. Geol. Stir., 
by M. L. Fuller. 



UNDEBGEOUX) WAI'ER SUIPLY. 15^ 

ment is commonly stated in inches. The average rainfall 
for the State as a whole for the fifteen years, from 1892 
to 1906, inclusive, as deduced from the U. S. Weather 
Reports, was 53.17 inches, annually. The year 1907 wa« 
a year of less than average rainfall, 49.15 inches, and if this 
year is included the average for the sixteen years, 1892 
to 1907, falls below 53 inches, being 52.92 inches. If longer 
periods be considered the variation from this average i« 
not sufficient to materially change the result. 

The average rainfall at Jacksonville for the 33 year* 
ending vrith 1904, was 53.21 inches, annually; at Jupiter 
it was for the 17 years ending with 1904, 59.19 inches, 
annually ; at Pensacola for the 25 years ending with 1904, 
it was 56.33 inches, annually ; at Tampa for the 15 years 
ending with 1904, it was 53.99 inches, annually; at Key 
West, the station of lowest rainfall, it was for the 34 years 
ending with 1904, 37.57 inches, annually.* The area cov- 
ered by this bulletin lies in a part of the State supplied 
with about the average rainfall, and 53 inches may be 
safely assumed as a close approximation to the annual 
rainfall for this section. 

Disposition of Rainfall. 

Of the total rainfall of any area (1) a part is returned 
as vapor to the atmosphere without having entered the 
earth; (2) a part is carried oft' by streams and rivers to 
the ocean without penetrating the earth; (3) a part is 
absorbed into the earth. 

(1) WATER EVAPORATED WITHOUT ENTERING THE EARTH. 

Immediately following a rain the atmosphere is nearly 
or quite saturated. The evaporation at this time is slow, 
and the part returned to the atmosphere directly from 
the land is an almost negligible amount. This is especially 
true of a soil into which the water enters quickly. Som© 
tof the water clinging to the leaves of plants is re-evapo- 
rated, as well as a part of that which falls into lakes, 
ponds, and temporary pools. While an estimate of the 

♦Deduced from the U. S. Weather Reports. Precipitation: Aver- 
age, Greatest and Least Monthly. Amounts, from the Establish, 
ment of Stations to the End of 1904. Wm. B. Stockman. 



14 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SUmTJY. 

amount evaporated must be regarded as only in the rough- 
est wa}' approximate, yet it is probably safe to assume 
that not more than 2 or 3 per cent of the total rainfall 
is returned to the atmosphere by direct evaporation with 
out having entered the earth. 

(2) SURFACE RUN-OFF. 

The relative proportion between the surface run-ojff and 
the surface in-take of water is dependent upon the char- 
acter of the surface and the deeper formations and upon 
the topography. The former affects rapidity of in-take of 
water into the earth; the latter the rapidity of surface 
runoff. 

With regard to topography, central Florida is either 
flat or rolling. Rarely can a locality within this section 
be described as hilly. The elevation increases gradually 
from sea level at the coast to a maximum of scarcely more 
than 200 feet inland, while large sections are so flat as to 
present no perceptible slope. Topographically the condi- 
tions are, therefore, very unfavorable to surface run-off. 

On the other hand, the conditions are exceptionally 
favorable to large surface in-take. A mantle of sand, 
forming the surface deposit, is almost universally present. 
This sand receives the rainfall with great readiness. It 
is true that the sand is underlaid in certain limited areas 
of the flatwoods type, by a clay sub-stratum which, as a 
result of its impervious nature, checks the downward 
movement of water. For the most part, however, the un- 
derlying formation is either porous limestone, or a sandy 
pervious clay with the limestone just below. Locally, the 
sand may be largely absent, the impervious clay lying 
near the surface. From these localities and from other 
flatwoods come such surface run-off as this territory sup- 
plies. The flat woods country, however, is small in pro- 
portion to the combined extent of rolling pine, hammock, 
and scrub lands. 

The effect of these conditions on the drainage is very 
evident. Over considerable sections, involving in some 
cases whole counties, surface streams are entirely lack- 
ing. The large streams bordering or entering this sec- 
tion are supplied largely by springs, rather than by surface 



UNDERGROUND NvAJEK giUPPLY. 15 

run<vff. Wherever the Vicksburg or other porous lime- 
stone is the surface formation, or where it is covered onl^^ 
by a surface mantle of sand, or of sandy pervious clay, 
surface streams are absent, and surface run-off practically 
nothing. Such small surface streams as are formed, run 
often only a short distance, when they disappear through 
one of the numerous sinks, thus gaining entrance to the 
underground water horizon. Examples of these small dis- 
appearing streams are common to almost every section of 
inland Florida. They are described in more detail in the 
later pages of this bulletin. 

It is sometimes estimated that in the presence of a 
jBandy soil 3 to 4 per cent of the rainfall passes off as sur- 
face run-off. For the area treated in this bulletin having 
both a sandy soil and a pervious limestone sub-formation, 
the surface run-off probably does not exceed this amount. 

(3) iU.INFALL ENTERING THE EARTH. 

From the estimates already given, it would -appear th«,t 
approximately 95 per cent of the total rainfall over cen-* 
tral Florida enters the earth. It will be recognized that 
es the geologic and topographic conditions vary from 
place to place, so will the relative proportion between sur- 
face run-off and surface in-take vary. Owing to certain 
conditions already specified, a few limited localities have 
a relatively high surface run-off. 

Of the water wtiich enters the earth a part is ultimately 
returned to the atmosphere by evaporation. The water 
retained in soils is slowly given up through evaporation 
during dry weather. As the evaporation takes place near 
the surface, capillary attraction draws a new supply frora 
beneath, thus maintaining to some extent the moisture 
content of the soil. The amount of water thus brought 
to the surface and evaporated, while varying with climate 
and with soils, is, in the course of a year, considerable. 

To the evaporation from the surface of the soil must 
be added that from the leaves of plants. This in turo 
variag greatly with the different plants ajad with different 
climatic conditions. King, in 1892, in one experiment, 
found that a crop of peas evaporated 477 pounds of water 



16 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. 

for each pound of dry matter formed, while corn under 
the same conditions evaporated in one instance 238 
pounds of water per pound of dry matter, i Assuming that 
a citrus tree evaporates approximately as much as the 
European oak (Quereus cerris) , the water evaporated 
from the leaves of a fifteen year-old orange tree is esti- 
mated by Hilgard at 20,000 pounds a year, or about 1.000 
tons of water per acre of 100 trees. 2 This is equivalent to 
about 9 inches annual rainfall over the same area. Water 
is the chief vehicle for conveying plant food absorbed from 
the soil by the roots. This enormous evaporation from 
the leaves is in part for the purpose of disposins: of the 
water thus taken up by the plant. It serves chiefly, how- 
ever, the purpose of preventing, through the conversion of 
water into vapor, an injurious rise of temperature during 
the hot sunshine and dry weather. 

It is impossible to estimate within even approximate 
limits the loss of water by evaporation from the surface 
of the ground, and from the leaves of Dlants in the area 
under consideration. The atmosphere in Florida is rela- 
tively humid. On the other hand, the temperature through- 
out most of the year is high. Much of the country is un- 
cultivated, and practically all of the soil is of medium 
coarse texture. 

It is probable that almost one-half of the rainfall enter- 
ing the earth is re-evaporated from the surface of the 
ground and from the leaves of plants, and that not more 
than one-half of the total rainfall in Florida passes 
through the soil and surface material to join the under- 
ground water supply. 

Amount of Water Available for the Underground 

Supply. 

. An annual rainfall of 53 inches is found by computa- 
tion to amount to 921,073,379 gallons per square mile. Of 
this amount it is estimated that one-half, or 460,536, 681> 

^20th Ann. Report Wis. Agriculture Experiment Station, 
p. 320, 1904. 

2 Based on weighings made by R. H. Loughridge of the leaves of 
a citrus tree at Riverside Calif. Soils, by E. W. Hilgard, p. 263, 
1906. 



UNDERGROUL'fD WAfi^U STTPPLY. 17 

gallons per square mile, is added each, year in central 
Florida to the underground water supply. 

Underground Circulation of Water. 

> 
Underground water is found usually to be in motion, 
threading its way through pores, breaks, crevices, joints, 
and other openings in the rocks. Its movement is ordi- 
narily slow and varies with different rocks and under dif- 
ferent conditions. 

cause of movement. 

The chief cause of movement of underground, as of sur- 
face water, is gravity. Capillarity is an additional force 
which under special conditions may become the controll- 
ing factor. The water returned to, and evaporated from 
the surface of the gi*ound, as well as that carried to and 
evaporated from the leaves of plants, is moved by capil- 
larity in opposition to gravity. Gravity, however, is the 
controlling force in the movement of water through the 
deep zones of the earth. Pressure, which is an important 
secondary cause of movement in the earth, is the expres- 
sion of gravity. Except in the case of capillarity, the 
movement of water apparently in opposition to gravity, is, 
upon closer observation, found to be in reality, movement 
in response to gravity. The water which rises in a boring 
or flows from an artesian well or spring is forced up by 
pressure due principally to the weight of water lying at 
a higher level. The familiar observation that water seeks 
its own level has the same explanation. 

RATE OF MOVEMENT. 

The chief factors affecting the rate of movement of 
water through a porous medium as given by Schlichter are 
as follows :* 

(1) Porosity of the material. 

(2) Size of the pores in the water-bearing medium. 
- (3) Pressure. 

; (4) Temperature of the water. 



*Water Supply Paper, U. S. Geol; Surv. No. G7, p. 17, 1902. 



18 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. 

(1) Kocks contain pores which, in the absence of a 
liquid, are ordinarily filled with air. The relative propor- 
tion of these spaces in the rock to the whole volume is the 
measure of the porosity. Thus if a cubic foot of sandstone 
will hold in its pores one-fourth cubic foot of water, its 
porosity is 25 per cent. The greater the porosity, the more 
water absorbed by the rocks. 

(2) The size of the pores in the rock affects the rate of 
flow. Rocks having large pores receive and conduct water 
many times more rapidly than those having small pores. 

(3) The greater the pressure, other conditions remain- 
ing the same, the more rapid the flow. A pressure of one 
pound per square inch is required to support each 2.31 
feet of a column of distilled water at the temperature of 
60 degrees F. The weight of water from the deep zx)nes is 
Increased by solids in solution and in suspension^ and is 
affected by changes in temperature. Something mope tham 
a hundred pounds pressure to the square inch is required 
H:io cause a flow from the bottom of a well 231 feet deep. 
Something more than 500 pounds pressure to the squar* 
inch is required to cause the rise of water in a boring a 
distance of 1150 feet. Pressure of this magnitude must 
materially assist in forcing water through the rock. 

(4) The temperature of the water is found to influence 
the rate of flow. Schlichter finds that a change from 50 to 
60 degrees P. increases the capacity to transmit water 
under identical conditions by about 16 per cent.* 

Depth of Underground Water. 

The limit of the downward extent of water has not been 
reached by borings or tunnels, some of which exceed a 
mile in depth. Water, while thus known to penetrate to 
a depth greater than a mile, probably does not reach 
beyond five or six miles at the most. The movement, as 
has been stated, is through natural openings in the rock. 
Pressure increases in the earth with depth, and it is esti- 
mated that at a depth of approximately six miles, th« 

*Water Supply and Irrigation Paper U. S. Geol. Sur. No. 140, 
p. 13, 1905. 



UNDERGROUND WATER SUPPLY. 19 

pressure is so great that the pores and cavities of even the 
strongest rocks, are completely closed/ making it impos- 
sible for water to penetrate beyond this depth. Most of 
the water, however, returns to the surface after a com- 
paratively short underground course, only a small part 
of it reaching to this great depth. 

Hydrogejs^ Sulphide in Underground Water. 

The underground water of Florida is ^^ery generally imr 
pregnated with hydrogen sulphide (Ht^S) also known as 
sulphuretted hydrogen, and hydro-sulphuric acid. Water 
containing hydrogen sulphide is commonly known as "sul- 
phur water." Sulphur water is especially characteristic 
of the areas of artesian flow. In those sections in which 
open porous limestone is the surface formation, hydrogen 
sulphide is usually absent from the first water encoun- 
tered, although even here it is found to exist in the water 
from the deep wells, and in some springs. 

Source : — Hydrogen sulphide may originate in nature in 
any one of several ways. The following have been sug- 
gested: (1) The' decay of organic matter containing sul- 
phur; (2) the reaction of organic matter upon sulphides 
or sulphates; (3) the reaction of acids upon sulphides; 
(4) partial oxidization of sulphides ; (5) steam passing 
over sulphur. 

The decay of organic matter is an obvious source of 
hydrogen sulphide in the underground water of Florida. 
Chemical analysis shows that sulphur is very generally 
present in Florida soils, ^ and apparently invariably pres- 
ent in muck soils. Two samples of Florida peat which is, 
like muck, a vegetable accumulation, were found to con- 
tain .05 and .08 per cent of sulphur respectively. ^ Hydro- 
gen sulphide is formed in connection with the decay of 
eggs. In this case the albumen of the egg, according to 

»L. M. Hoskins, IGth An.n. Rept. U. S. Geol. Sur., Pai't 1, p. 859, 
1896. 

2 Bulletin 43, Florida State Experiment Station, pp. 653, 657, 
659, 1897. 

3 Bulletin U. S. .G S. No. 332, page 77, 1908, Analysis of bog 
sample from Orlando. 



20 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. 

Ostwald, contains the sulphur, i HgS is also found escaping 
from sewer drains and cesspools, and is formed during the 
decomposition both of animal and vegetable substances. 
The H^S occurring in shallow springs from marsh lands 
is doubtless supplied largely from organic material. 

The sulphur in soils is probably often present as sul- 
.phates. Thorpe states that the decay of organic matter 
in contact with sulphates results in the formation of 
H^S. 2 The reaction in this case probably results from 
reducing properties of decaying organic matter, the sul- 
phates being first reduced to sulphides according to the 
following reaction: Nag S 0^ + Cj (carbon of organic 
matter) =2CO,+Na2S. The sulphide is then acted upon 
by the carbonic acid to form H^S as follows: NagS-H' 
H2C03=H2S+Na2C03. The reaction of organic matter 
upon the sulphides is regarded by Van Hise as another im- 
portant source of H^ S in underground water. ^ 

The formation of hydrogen sulphide as a result of the 
action of acids upon metallic sulphides is one of the most 
familiar of laboratory experiments. This suggests the pos- 
sibility of the formation of this gas as the result of the 
action of acids upon metallic sulphides contained in the 
rocks. Sulphides, especially those of iron, are widely 
scattered in the earth's crust and occur in sufficient quan- 
tity to account for the formation of HtS gas in water. 
Hydrogen sulphide is a weak acid and its salts are decom- 
posed by a stronger acid. Sulphuric and other mineral 
acids should certainly react upon sulphides liberating 
[HtS. Carbonic acid when abundant reacts upon alkali 
sulphides to produce hydrogen sulphide. It is true that 
the alkali sulphides are normally not abundant in the 
crust of the earth. Stokes has shown, however, that the 
reaction of sodium carbonate within the earth upon pyrite 
or marcasite produces sodium sulphide. The reaction 
given by him is as follows: 

8FeS2+15Na2C03=4Fe203-^14Na,S-l-Na2S203+15CO,.4 

1 Principles of Inorganic Chemistry, page 274, Ostwald, 1904. 

2 Dictionary of Chemistry, Vol. Ill, p. 697, 1900. 

3A Treatise on Metamorphism, Mon. XLVII U. S. Geol. Survey, 
page 1112, 1904. 
^ Prom Van Hise, L. C. page 1107. 



UNDERGROUND WATER SUPPLY. 21 

It is a well-known fact that the carbon dioxide which 
unites with water to form carbonic acid is abundant ia 
the deep waters, especially in the limestone formations, 
the pressure existing at considerable depth enabling the 
water to hold great quantities of carbonic acid. The series 
of reactions given by Stokes accounts for the presence of 
alkali sulphides in solution in the deep waters. It may 
be added that all sulphides are soluble to some extent in 
water, and in that condition may be acted upon by car- 
bonic acid.i 

The partial oxidation of sulphides is, according to Van 
Hise, a possible additional method of the formation of 
hydrogen sulphide, the reaction being as follows :- 

The oxidizing processes are the most rapid near the sur- 
face, especially above the underground water level, and 
H2S derived from this source probably supplies relatively 
shallow, rather than deep waters. 

The formation of H^S by steam passing over sulphur 
which occurs in connection with volcanoes, may be dis- 
missed in considering the sulphur waters of Florida, 
since, as previously observed, Florida has no volcanoes 
and no indications of volcanic activity. 

Sulphur Water not Evidence of Beds of Sulphur. 

There is a widespread belief that the presence of sul- 
phur water must necessarily indicate the existence of beds 
of the mineral sulphur. This conclusion does not follow. 
The probable sources of the sulphur in sulphur waters as 
indicated above is organic matter together with metallic 
sulphates and sulphides scattered through sedimentary 
rocks. 

Sulphur Deposits Formed from Hydrogen Sulphide. 

As stated in the last paragraph, sulphur waters are not 
to be regarded as resulting from beds of pure sulphur. On 
the contrary, it is probably true that these waters may, in 

^ Inorganic Chemistry. International Library of Technology. 
Sec. 12, p. 11. 
2 L. C. p. 1113. 



22 FLORID 4 Gi:OLOGICxVL SURVEY. 

some instances, result in the formation of such deposits. 
Hydrogen sulphide when acted upon in the water by oxy- 
gen breaks up, forming water and sulphur, the reaction 
being HsS+O^^H^O+S. It is thus possible that H2S in the 
underground water, or escaping from the underground 
water, may become dis-associated, forming deposits of 
pure sulphur. Such deposits of economic value have not 
been reported in Florida. It is a noteworthy fact, how- 
ever, that one large mass of sulphur has been found under- 
neath phosphate beds in Citrus County.* The formation 
of this mass of sulphur is probably due to hydrogen sul- 
phide. 

Absence of Hydrogen Sulphide from Certain Waters in 

F1.0RIDA. 

The absence of hydrogen sulphide from the first water 
obtained from areas in which the open porous limestone is 
the surface formation, has already been stated. It is a 
well-known fact that if sulphur water is allowed to stand 
in the open air the gas will escape. This method of free- 
ing water from an excess of H^S gas is a common practice 
wlierever sulphur water is used for domestic purposes. 
Wherever porous limestone lies at or near the surface th-i 
sulphur gas which the water may have contained will find 
a ready means of escape. In other parts of the State 
where compact and impervious formations rest upon the 
limestone, the ga« is prevented from escaping and sulphur 
water is obtained. 

Amount of Hydrogen Sulphide Influenced by Pressure. 

The quantity of H2S gas which the w^ater is able to 
hold in solution under these conditions, is determined by 
i]\e pressure. The law of the solubility of gases in liquids 
is as follows : The quantity of the gas which a liquid is 
able to dissolve is directly proportional to the pressure on 
the gas. In the open, porous limestone with no confining 
s*tratum above, the water at the top of the undergTound 
water level is merely under atmospheric pressure. After 
passing the Underground water level, however, the pres- 

*Pirst Annual Report, Florida State Geological Survey, 1908. 



UNDERGROUND WATER SUPPLY. 23 

sure increases rapidly. The increase of pressure is not 
simply that due to the atmosphere, but that due to the 
weight of the overlying column of water plus the atmos- 
phere. According to Van Hise:* "The pressure which 
really is determinative as to the amount of gas which may 
be held in solution is that of a column of wa-ter extending 
to the free surface, plus the atmospheric pressure." From 
this law it follows that water at a great depth and under 
great pressure is capable of holding a large quantity of 
hydrogen sulphide in solution. When brought to the sur- 
face the pressure is relieved and the gas rapidly escapes. 
The artesian waters in the flowing areas of the State are 
under considerable pressure, thus enabling them to hold a 
large quantity of hydrogen sulphide as well as a high pro- 
portion of mineral solids in solution. 

In order that the deep waters may hold large quantities 
of H^S in solution it is necessary that the gas be availa- 
ble. This implies that the gas in the artesian and other 
deep waters originates at some considerable depth rather 
than at or near the surface. 

*L. C, page 70. 



UNDERGROUND WATER OF CENTRAL FLORIDA. 

The underground water supply of central Florida avail- 
able for general purposes may conveniently be discussed 
under the tvs^o divisions: (1) Water of the surface forma- 
tions; (2) and water of the deep formations. 

The water held in the interstices of the soil and other 
surface materials, while of great importance to the growth 
of vegetation, is not usually included in a consideration 
of the underground water for commercial and general pur- 
poses. Movement of water in soils is controlled by capil- 
larity and this water is often referred to as ^^capillary 
water of soils." Capillary water, although of great impor- 
tance in soils, is not available as a source of supply for 
wells and will not be considered further in this report. 

Water of the Surface Formations. 

The water of the surface formations, often known as 
shallow or surface water, is that occurring nearest the 
surface and is available for shallow wells. The water in 
the surface formations is supplied by comparatively local 
rainfall. Its occurrence depends upon the permeability of 
the surface material and upon the existence of an imper- 
vious sub-statum. The surface material may be made u^ 
of sand, sandy clay, or other porous substance. The im- 
pervious sub-stratum is usually a clay or shale. Both of 
these conditions are necessary. In the absence of an im- 
pervious sub-stratum the water entering the earth will 
pass through to a deeper zone. It is usually possible to 
determine from surrounding conditions the probability of 
the existence of water in the surface formations. Thus if 
in any locality the surface formation consists of sand br 
sandy porous clays underlaid by an impervious stratum of 
any kind, water may be expected. If, on the other hand, 
an impervious sub-stratum is absent, permitting the rain- 
fall to pass directly into the deeper formations, water in 
the surface formations will be lacking. 

CHARACTER OF THE WATER OF THE SURFACE FORMATIONS. 

Owing to great variation in surface deposits from place 
to place, a similar variation in the character of the water 



UNDERGROUND WATER SUPPLY. 



25 



must be expected. Thus, if the the surface formatious con- 
sist largely of sand and clay with little or no calcareous 
material, the water may be expected to be soft, while if the 
surface material is highly calcareous the water is usually 
found to be hard. Since the water in the surface forma- 
tions is supplied by local rainfall, it travels a compara- 
tively short underground course, and its opportunity for 
taking mineral solids into solution is proportionately lim- 
ited. The water from the surface formation is, in general, 
characterized by a relatively small amount of total solids 
in solution. The following analyses may be taken as rep- 
resentative. These were made during 1900 by Professor 
A. W. Blair, Chemist of the Florida State Experiment 
Station, and have been kindly supplied by the Director : 



Ingredients. 



Parts per Million. 



1 2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


Hardness 9. 13.87 


28.32 


4.85 


4.62 


1.156 


Chlorine 23. 11. 


11. 


6. 


5.00 


11. 


Nitrates 71 .83 


8.84 


.287 


.312 


1. 


Nitrites | .0354 .0306 


trace 


none 


none 


none 


Free ammonia .08 .02 


.005 


.005 


.000 


.00 


Albuminoid 










ammonia ..| none| .0114 


.010 


none 


.000 


.00 


Total solids. 54. 47. 


97. 


39. 


39. 


46. 



No. 1. 



No. 
No. 

No. 
No. 



2. 



No. 6. 



Water from pump at the Miller residence. Lake 
City, Columbia County. 

Water from Hensley place, Lake City. 

Water from pump on Perry's corner, Marion street. 
Lake City. 

Water from pump at Dormitory, Lake City. 

Water from pump at north end of Foster Hall, 
Lake City. 

Water from 30-foot open dug well ending in clay, 
San Antonio, Pasco County. "Water clear, but con- 
taining brown-white sediment, floculent, slightly 
musty odor. On ignition residue blackened de- 
cidedly, indicating organic matter." 

Escape of Water from the Surface Formations: — The 
water from the surface formations escapes principally 
through seepage and surface springs, and by percolation 
downward into the deeper formations. Some of it is drawn 
up again by capillary attraction into the unsaturated zone 



S-GeoBuU 



26 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. 

above, and some is absorbed by the roots of such plants 
as penetrate to this zone. The flow from the springs 
passes off into streams, some of it being evaporated into 
the ^atmosphere, while the remainder reaches the ocean. 
The water escaping downward supplies the deeper forma- 
tions. 

SHALLOW WELLS. 

Water is obtained from the surface formations by shal- 
low, dug, or driven wells. The water reaches these wells by 
seepage through the surrounding material, and is likely to 
vary in amount with the wetness and dryness of the sea- 
sons. This water is often desirable for boiler use owing to 
the small amount of encrusting material present. When, 
however, the water reaching the well parses through de- 
caying vegetation or muck deposits, it usually contains 
acids which coiTode the boilers. Shallow wells can not be 
relied upon as a rule for a large and unvarying supply of 
water. Only occasionally and under favorable conditions 
will they supply sufficient water for irrigating purposes. 

Contamination : — When shallow wells are used as a sup- 
ply for household purposes, the greatest care should be 
exercised to prevent contamination. The conditions under 
which this water occurs, render it readily susceptible to 
pollution. Such wells should never be placed near a barn 
or other outbuilding ; nor should the offal from the house, 
or other organic material be thrown near them. The 
water, being supplied from the immediate surroundings, 
may carry imx3urities into the well. A well, for instance, 
passing through ^and and terminating in an impervious 
clay gathers water from the surrounding area for a consid- 
erable distance. Many cases of typhoid fever have been 
traced directly to contaminated wells. The fact that the 
water has been used for many years without fatal results 
does not preclude the possibility of infectious organisms 
finding their way into the well in the very near future. 
IS^evertheless, when properly located, shallow wells often 
yield an excellent supply of soft, pure water. 

Open dug wells are much more liable to contamination 
in this way than driven wells. The dug w^ells are often sub- 
ject to overflow, thus admitting unfiltered surface water. 



UNDERGROUND WATER SUPPLY. 27 

Unless properly cemented they also receive water by 
seepage along the sides. 

The Water of the Deep Formations. 

When water is obtained in the deep formations it is, 
as a rule, more permanent and occurs in larger quantities 
than that in the surface formations. There may be more 
than one zone of deep water at any locality, depending 
upon the structure and arrangement of the underlying for- 
mations. The term ''deep water" is applied in this report 
to waters which are permanent and ordinarily inexhausti- 
ble by pumping, and which do not conform to local surface 
topography. This water is not necessarily obtained only 
at a great depth. In many cases the water level is near 
the isurface. This is necessarily so since the surface de- 
scends gradually to sea level or to the springs which serve 
as an outlet for the deep waters. 

water op the vicksburg limestone. 

The Vicksburg Limestone is the most important water- 
bearing formation of central Florida. After passing 
through the surface deposits, wells throughout most of the 
section treated in this bulletin enter this formation. The 
thickness of the surface material and the depth to the 
limestone varies from a few feet of sand and soil in some 
Icx^alities, to several hundred feet in others. The area in 
which the limestone lies near the surface includes parts 
of Suwannee, Columbia, Alachua, Levy, Citrus, Sumter 
and Hernando Counties. The top of the limestone, how- 
ever is everywhere extremely irregular. Occasionally wells 
within this section penetrate for a depth of one to two 
hundred feet before reaching the limestone. These places 
appariently mark the location either of the deep solution 
holes in the limestone, or of ancient valleys or basins sub- 
sequently filled by sand or clay. 

Source.— The source of water in the Vicksburg lime- 
stone is the rainfall. This statement would scarcely call 
for 'further comment except for the fact that the abund- 
ance of water in the limestone and the conditions under 
which it occurs have led to a widespread belief that the 
supply is replenished by underground streams from some 



28 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. 

deep or remote source. The conditions are most simple 
and the conclusion that the water in the limestone is gjup- 
plied by rainfall is most obvious in those parts of the 
State in which the limestone lies near the surface. Weist 
central Alachua County serves admirably to illustrate the 
local origin of the water in the limestone. Throughout 
this area, surface clay deposits are either of but slight 
thickness, or entirely lacking, the limestone often ap- 
proaching nearly or quite to the surface. Surface streams 
are absent, and practically the entire rainfall enters the 
earth. The ground water level (water line) in the lime- 
stone, lies at an average depth of from 30 to 40 feet. Nu- 
merous wells are put down in this section for the purpose 
of obtaining water for phosphate mining. The plan of 
construction of these wells affords an especially favorable 
opportunity for observing the effects of rainfall on the 
underground water. A large pit, ten to twenty feet in 
diameter is dug down to, or almost to, the ground water 
level. From the bottom of the pit a boring is put down 
until a sufficient supply of water is obtained. The pumps 
are low^er-ed into the pit, thus enabling pumping by direct 
pressure. It is observed without exception that heavy and 
continued rains affect the water level. The effect, however, 
is not immediate as in the case of shallow wells ending in 
the surface formations. The rise in the water comes 
fe.owly, following the beginning of the rainy season some 
time being necessary for the downward percolation of the 
water. The highest level of the water table is reached 
some time after the close of the rainy season. That the 
change in the level is considerable is demonstrated by the 
fact that pumps lowered into the pits during the dry sea- 
son may be under w^ater by the close of the rainy season. 
That the rainfall is the source of the water supply is 
less obvious although no less certain in those parts of the 
State in which later formations rest upon the Vicksburg 
Limestone. These later formations are often thin and per- 
vious, permitting water to pass readily into the limestone 
beneath. Locally, impervious deposits occur which inter- 
fere with the downward passage of water. Under these 
conditions the water entering the surface is checked in its 
downward movement, but spreads horizontally, and may 



UNDERGROUND WATER SUPPLY. 29 

ultimately reach the limestone in any one of several ways. 
Such impervious deposits are often of local extent, and the 
lateral spread of the water may carry it beyond their bor- 
der and into pervious material, thus permitting further 
downward movement. Occasional sinks formed in the 
manner described on a later page afford openings through 
the clay, permitting seepage water entering the sink to 
find a passage-way to the deeper formations. Not every 
sink, however, affords such a passage. Some, as elsewhere 
explained, become clogged at the bottom and remain filled 
wath surface water. 

Illustrations of surface water gaining direct entrance 
to the underground supply through sinks are too numer- 
ous to require special mention, as disappearing streams 
are common to all sections of the State in which sinks 
occur. Falling Creek and High Falls, in Columbia County, 
and Alachua Sink, in Alachua County, described on pages 
54 and 56, serve as examples. Another illustration is 
found on the State University grounds at Gainesville. The 
greater part of the surface run-off from the University 
tract finds its way to a small stream which enters the hill 
near the south side of the grounds. In addition to the 
surface run-off, seepage water supplied by springs from 
the surface formations is also carried off through this 
stream. Apparently this stream formerly flowed to Lake 
Alice, and possibly at a still earlier stage to Hogtown 
Creek. The sink formed near the bed of the stream divert- 
ed it from its earlier course. An illustration of the sink 
which carries off the water received by seepage springs is 
afforded by the "Devil's Mill Hopper," near Gainesville, 
Florida. This sink is located on the highlands six miles 
northwest of Gainesville. The surface elevation at this 
place is about 180 feet above sea level. The sink, although 
of considerable depth, does not reach the deep water level. 
An onening at one side near the bottom, however, permits 
the escape of the water. The water from the surface and 
shallow formations enters this sink from a number 
of small springs around the sides, and reaches a deeper 
formation, the Vicksburg Limestone, through the open- 
ing at the bottom of the sink. 

Water Level. — The water level in the limestone is ap- 



30 



FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SUEVEY. 



proximately uniform over considerable areas, its level 
being not materially affected by local changes in elevation. 
Otherwise expressed, the water level in the limestone is 
independent of local surface topography. This fact is 
illustrated b}^ the deep wells at Gainesville. The records 
of these wells are as follows ; 



Owner of well. 



Location 
from P.O. 



i)iamond Ice Co.. 3 blocks n.w. 
B. P. Williamson 1 mi. n. 
City of Gain'ville 2 mi. s.e. 



Surface 

elevation 

above sea. 

176 ft. 

180 ft. 

82 ft. 



Water 
level from 
surface. 
121 ft. 
128 ft. 
31.32 ft. 



bevel of 

water 

above sea. 

55 ft. 
52 ft. 
50 ft. 



The measurements for both the surface level and the 
water level for the city well at Gainesville were made with 
care by City Engineer G. D. Cairns.* The surface eleva- 
tion of the other wells in the above table is taken from the 
topographic map of the Gainesville area. In estimating 
surface elevation from topographic maps, a limit of possi- 
ble error of a few feet must be recognized. Moreover, the 
measurements to the water level were made in different 
years and at different seasons of the year. The variation 
with seasons in the water level amounts, as previously 
explained, in some sections, to several feet. In 1906 the 
writer made more exact measurements for the U. S. Geo- 
logical Survey at Orlando. These are reported in Bulletin 
89, of the Florida State Experiment Station, page 102, 
and are as follows : 



Well. 



D&pth. 



San Juan well 487 ft. 

School house well .... 260 ft. 

Lockhart's well 210 ft. 

Well in ditch ^mi.e. 340 ft. 



Water 
Surface level from 
elevation, surface. 

111.12 ft. 45.1 ft. 

110.36 ft. 44.77 ft. 

107.93 ft. 41.83 ft. 

78.95 ft. 13.9 ft. 



Level 
of water 
above sea. 
66.02 ft. 
65.59 ft. 
66.10 ft. 
65.05 ft. 



Factors Controlling the Water Level. — The controlling 
factors in determining the water level are location of outlet 
plus the friction of flow to that outlet. This is best shown 
by considering in some detail two of the largest springs. 
The following sketch is constructed with a view of show- 
ing the relation of the level of the underground water to 



♦Levels kindly supplied by B. P. Miller, Superintendent City- 
Water Supply. 



UNDERGROUND AVATER SUPPLY. 31 

the level of the water in Silver Springs and Blue Springs, 
the tv/o largest springs occurring in the State. The sketch 
represents a section from Silver Springs to Blue Springs 
in southwest Marion County, a total distance of 27 miles. 
The dotted line (2) represents the underground water 
level. The surface contour shown in the sketch is obtained 
from the topographic map of these sections and is drawn 
to scale. The line representing the underground water 
level is constructed from the well records. The water, a» 
will be seen from the sketch, stands practically on a level 
with these two large springs. An apparent variation of 
a few feet in the records is within the limits of error since 
the elevation of both springs and wells are estimated from 
the topographic maps and since the measurements of depth 
to water in the wells were not all made at the same time, 
but at different seasons of the year. The sketch through 
Suwannee and Columbia Counties further illustrates the 
relation of outlet t-o water level. See fig. 1-2, p. 32. 

Quantity. — The quantity of water contained in the 
Yicksburg Limestone is large. The limestone is for the 
most part porous. In addition to the ordinary pore space 
in the rock, there are numerous solution cavities. The 
limestone is saturated by rainfall to the water level, and 
the supply which it contains is, for ordinary purposes, 
inexhaustible. 

OTHER WATER-BEARING FORMATIONS. 

The dip of the Vicksburg Limestone to the east and to 
the south carries it to such a depth that it is riot reached 
by medium deep wells of northeast Alachua, east Marion, 
Lake, and parts of Pasco Counties. In these localities water 
is obtained from the Upper Oligocene and Miocene forma- 
tions resting upon the Vicksburg. The water from these 
later formations contains, as a rule, a smaller proportion 
of solids in solution and is not so hard as that from the 
Vicksburg. 



o 

OQ 

m 

3 



-•05 cry 



"^OX 



Ofi 



Oo/\ 



oo 



00/ 



0^ 



o^ 



o 



oS 



<n ■♦^ "73 




underground water supply. 33 

Quality op the Water of the Deep Formations. 

Limestone water is usually hard; that is, it holds in 
solution certain salts, particularly salts of calcium and 
magnesium. The salts commonly present are the carbo- 
nates and sulphates. Calcium carbonate, CaCOo, while 
but slightly soluble in water, becomes in the presence of 
an excess of OO2, much more soluble, the salt being tlien 
held in solution in the form of bicarbonate Ca(HC03)2. 
For boiler use softening of the limestone water by chemi- 
cal treatment is often necessary. Numerous analyses are 
given preceding the tables of well records. From an exami- 
nation of these it will be observed that the total solids, in 
a very general way and with occasional exceptions, in- 
crease with the depth of the well. The hardness of the 
water determined principally by the amount of calcium 
and magnesium salts present, also increases, as a rule, 
with depth. This increase in mineral solids in solution 
with depth is accounted for partly by the fact that the 
water from the deep wells has necessarily traveled a longer 
journey underground than has that of the less deep wells. 
In doing so it has had a greater opportunity to take solids 
into solution. Pressure, as elsewhere explained, is also an 
important factor. The amount of carbonic acid and other 
gases which the water can hold in solution is proDortion- 
ate to the pressure, while the pressure, as elsewhere ex- 
plained, increases with depth. 

Movement of the Water in the Deep Formations. 

The heavy annual rainfall and the large surface in-take 
necessarily implies movement of the water in the lime- 
stone. The general direction of movement, it may safely 
be assumed, is from the central interior region toward the 
coast on either side. Locally the water is no doubt de- 
flected from this general direction of flow. The rock 
through which the water moves is not of uniform texture. 
Local flint masses interfere with the flow. Water in one 
part of the formation may move readily through open 
porous limestone or through solution cavities. Elsewhere 
the movement is interfered with by compact areas such 



34 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. 

as occur irregularly in tlie limestone. Large springs 
through which the water finds an outlet draw upon the 
surrounding area, resulting in the convergence of the 
flow to the point of escape. 

Information regarding the rate of movement is difficult 
to obtain. It is doubtless true that the rate of movement 
varies from place to place in accordance with the varia- 
tion in the texture of the rocks, the proximity of springs, 
or other point of outlet, and the depth of the water in the 
earth. Such data as it has been possible to obtain indicate 
that, generally speaking, the water moves slowly through 
the many winding and inter-connecting solution cavities 
and through the porous rocks. 

A considerable percentage of the wells drilled are 
reported to have encountered underground streams. The 
idea commonly conveyed by these reports is that these 
are streams in the ordinary sense of the term confined to 
definite channels and moving rapidly through the earth. 
It is possible that variation in the texture of the rock 
may result in forcing the water through established chan- 
nels forming locally underground streams. The number 
of such streams is, however, necessarily limited. If under- 
ground streams occurred as numerously as reports Vt^ould 
imply, the total rainfall would be very quickly carried 
away and the streams cease to flow until the next season 
of heavy rains. The annual escape of water clearly can 
not exceed the annual in-take. If the water moved through 
the rock with a freedom approaching that with which sur- 
face water flows, it is obvious that the total rainfall would 
be quickly carried away, and the springs, instead of being 
perennial, would flow intermittently. Near the outlet of 
large springs the water doubtless moves in channels which 
become in realitj^ underground streams. It is probable 
that the pressure to which underground water is usually 
subjected causing a vertical rise in the boring when the 
cavity is reached, is mistaken in many c-ases for the flow 
of a stream. 



underground water supply. 35 

Escape of Water of the Deep Formations. 

SPRINGS. 

The large annual in-take of water into the limestone 
continuing through a long period of time implies an 
equally ready escape. The natural outlet is through 
springs. These are extremely numerous in Florida and of 
unusual size. The list given in tabulated form on a later 
page includes the largest of those occurring in the coun- 
ties covered by this report. 

In addition to these, numerous iarge springs come up 
in the ocean, while many others occur along the sides and 
in the channels of rivers, bordering or entering this sec- 
tion, or in swamps or lakes under such conditions that an 
estimate of the flow is difficult or impossible. The most 
impdrtant of these rivers are the Suwannee, Santa Fe, 
Withlacoochee, and Ocklawaha, all of which receive a con- 
siderable part of their supply from springs. 

The view is occasionally expressed that the large springs 
are fed by underground streams that originate in some 
remote section and flow at a great depth; and that the 
springs do not serve as an outlet for the local underground 
water supply, and are not affected by rainfall. Silver 
Spring (the largest of these springs), was closely observed 
by the writer during the first half of July, 1906. The rain- 
fall during this month was unusually heavy, amounting 
for the first seventeen days of the month to 10.27 inches.* 
The water level in Silver Spring rose steadily, the total 
rise during this half month of reavy rains amounting to a 
little more than one half foot (.65 feet). The rise in the 
spring] does not follow immediately upon the rains. The 
greatest advance is observed a day or two after the heavy 
rains, indicating that some days are required for the 
water to percolate through the overlying rocks and to 
reach the springs. Neither is the spring made turbid by 
the rains since the water Altering through the sand and 
rock is freed from clayey sediment. A similar variation 

♦Data on raimfall kindly supplied by W. L. Jewett, recorder of 
the Ocala Weather Bureau Station. 



36 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. 

in water level in wells with the rainy season has been 
described on a previous page. 

The area of drainage of each spring can not be closely 
outlined. The circulation of underground water is so 
complicated, and affected by so many factors that it is im- 
possible to determine from just how large an area a spring 
draws. So far as amount of rainfall is concerned, a com- 
paratively small area would supply each of the springs. 
On the basis of estimates already given the in-take of a 
surrounding area of 421 square miles, or about one- 
fourth of Marion County, is sufficient to supply the flow of 
Silver Springs, w^hile a smaller area would supply each 
of the other springs listed. Tlie fact that the springs are 
not afflected more decidedly by the seasons is due to the 
slowness with which water percolates through the overly- 
ing rock or moves through the deeper zones. This slow 
movement results in distributing the total flow with ap- 
proximate uniformity throughout the year. 

These and other observations establish the fact that the 
springs receive their water supply from the rainfall of the 
surrounding country. 

Silver Spring may be taken as typical of the limestone 
water springs of Florida. The basin of the spring has a 
depth of from 30 to 36 feet, with a total flow from several 
vents estimated at 368,913 gallons per minute. Professor 
John Le Conte visited this spring in 1859 for the purpose 
of studying its optical phenomena. With regard to the 

spring he says :* 

• 

"The most remarkable and interesting phenomena presented 
by this spring, is the truly extraordinary transparency of the 
water; in this respect surpassing anything which can be imag- 
ined. All of the intrinsic beauties which invest it, as we-U as 
the womderful optical properties which popular repoits 
have ascribed to its waters, are directly or indirectly refer- 
able to their almost perfectly diaphaniety. On a clear and 
calm day, after the sun has obtained sufficient altitude, the 
view from the side of a small boat floating on the surface of 
the water near the center of the head-spring, is beautiful 



*Amer. Jcurn. Sci., Vol. XXXI, p. 3, 1861. 



UNDERGROUND WATER SUPPLY. 37 

beyond description, and well calculated to produce a powerful 
impression upon the imagination. Every feature and configu- 
ration of the bottom of this gigantic basin is as distinctly visi- 
ble as if the water was removed, and atmosphere substituted 
in its place!" 

********** 

"My observations were made about noon, on the 17th and 
again on the 20th of December, 1859. The sunlight illaminat.id 
the sides and bottom of this remarkable pool as brilliantly as 
if nothing obstructed the light. The shadows of our little 
boat, of our overhanging heads and hats, of projecting crags 
and logs, of the surrounding forest, and of the vegetation at 
the bottom, were distinctly and sharply defined; while the 
constant waving of the slender and delicate moss-like algae, 
by means of the currents created by the boiling up of the 
water, and the swimming of numerous fish above this minia- 
ture subaqueous forest, imparted a living reality to the scene 
which can never be forgotten. And if we add to this picture, 
already sufficiently striking, that objects beneath the surface 
of the water, when viewed obliquely, were fringed with the 
prismatic hues, we shall cease to be surprised at tlie myst^-ri- 
ous phenomena with which vivid imaginations have invested 
this enchanting spring, as well as at the inaccuracies which 
have been perpetuated iu relation to the wonderful properties 
of its waters. On a bright day, the beholder seems to be looking 
down from some lofty airy point on a truly fairy scene in the 
immense basin beneath him, a scene whose beauty and mag- 
ical effect is vastly enhanced by the chromatic tints with 
which it is invested." 

The prismatic hues seen in this and other clear water 
springs of Florida, Professor LeConte believes to be due 
to the refraction of light passing through the water. He 
finds that white objects on a dark background when im- 
jnersed in the water are fringed with blue at the top and 
orange and red at the bottom, while the color of the fring- 
ing is reversed for dark objects on a white background. 
The remarkable transparency of the Florida springs, due 
principally to the fact that the water has been filtered and 
decolorized in its passage through beds of sand, is prob- 
ably augmented, in the opinion of LeConte, by the lime in 
solution in the water. 

Among other springs resembling Silver Spring in the 
manner of emergence, and in the mineral character and 



^8 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. 

clearness of the water may be mentioned: Blue Spring 
in Marion County; Icliatucknee, Spring in Columbia 
County; Blue, Wekiva, and Manatee Springs in Levy 
County, Crystal River and Chesehouiska Springs in Citrus 
County; Weekiwachee Spring in Hernando County, and 
Newland Spring in Suwannee County. These springs form 
the source of streams, many of which, as in the case of 
Silver Spring, are navigable to the source. Newland 
Spring is exceptional in the fact that the water coming 
Tip as a boil from a circular depression or sink, after flow- 
ing as a stream for a distance of about 200 yards, again 
disappears into the earth. This spring is distant only 
about three miles from the Suwannee Eiver. The static 
head of the underground water in the vicinity of Newland 
Spring is affected by the river. During high water stages 
the river frequently rises above the water level in the sur- 
rounding limestone. At this time the flow of the Newland 
Spring is reversed, the water then rising in the sink in 
which it ordinarily disappears and disappearing through 
the sink from which under ordinary conditions it. rises. 

The water of White Sulphur Spring and Suwannee Sul- 
phur Spring is impregnated with hydrogen sulphide gas. 
Perrian or Salt Spring, in Marion county, is exceptional 
in the high proportion of solids, particularly of chlorides, 
which it carries. 

WELLS. 

In locating wells in the limestone area two distinct 
points should be considered : First, the depth at which a 
sufficient water supply is likely to be obtained; and sec- 
ond, the level at which the water, when obtained, will 
stand in the boring. 

Level at Which Water* Will Stand in Completed 
Boring:— The distance that water may be expected to 
stand from the surface in the completed boring is a matter 
of more importance than the depth of the boring; for, 
while the expense of the boring terminates with the initial 
cost, the expense of lifting the water to the surface con- 







a 
o 

CO 



o 

fa 

O 

O 

c 

l-H 



I— ( 

I— I 

H 



UNDERGROUND WATER SlIPPLY. 39 

tinues indefinitely. If it is known that the water will rise 
near enough to the surface to admit of pumping by direct 
pressure, the cost of pumping is greatly reduced. The 
practicability of using water for irrigating purposes often 
turns upon this point, and in any case each additional foot 
that the water must be lifted involves an additional cost. 
In short, the expense of water is largely determined by 
the cost of pumping. 

The tables giving the general water resources, and list- 
ing typical wells for each county, together with the sketches 
showing the underground level in several of the countiCvS 
w'ill enable those who wish to put down wells to deter- 
mine approximately in most cases how near to the surface 
the water will rise. The water level in the limestone as 
indicated above (p. 30) does not conform to local variations 
in the surface level, but on the contrary, stands at a prac- 
tically uniform level over considerable areas, regardless 
of surface topography. (See figures pp. 32 and 40.) 

Depth of Boring. — In the Florida limestone the depth 
necessary to go to obtain water cannot be determined from 
surrounding wells. Ordinarily some water is obtained 
immediately upon passing the water line. For large quan- 
tities of water, however, it is usually necessary to pene- 
trate the limestone until a cavity of some considerable 
size and extent is encountered. The effect of the cavity is 
apparently to serve practically as a collecting basin. Al- 
though not enough water to supply the pump enters the 
small boring by seepage, yet when the boring is connected 
with the very much larger opening of the cavity or solu- 
tion channel, this larger collecting area is sufficient to 
afford a practically inexhaustible supply of water. Porous 
layers as well as cavities are of irregular occurrence. 
Wells may be located within a few feet of each other and 
yet differ greatly in depth. The varying depth is illus- 
trated by the Orlando wells. The four wells at the ''sink" 
one mile east of Orlando reached a water cavity at the 
depth of 140 feet. The well in the -'ditch," one-half mile to 
the west, starting at approximately the same surface level, 
encountered no cavity of appreciable size, but reached, at 



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UNDERGROUND WATER SUPPLY 



41 



the depth of 340 feet, a porous layer with an abundance of 
water. The ^^school house well," the surface level of which 
is approximately 31 feet higher than that of the well at 
the ditch, entered a porous water bearing layer at a depth 
of 260 feet. The "San Juan" well, less than one-fourth 
mile to the northwest of the school house well, was put 
down to a depth of 487 feet before reaching a layer con- 
sidered sufficiently open. The "Lockharf' well, one-half 
mile west of town, terminates in a cavity at a depth of 210 
feet. The static head of the water obtained in these wells 
U practically the same for all (p. 30). Another striking 
illustration of varying depth is afforded by the two wells 
at the Marion Farms, near Ocala. These wells are not more 
than six feet apart. One of them goes to a depth of 140 
feet, while in the other it was necessary to go 175 feet in 
order to obtain sufficient water. 




Fig. 5. —Sketch illustrating the varying depth of wells enter ing^ 
the limestone. In order to obtain a large supply of water it is. 
necessary to penetrate the limestone until either a solution cavity 
or a porous stratum is reached. The breaks in the limestone: 
represent irregularly occurring solution cavities, two of whica. 
are reached by wells. 



4-G€oBull 



42 



FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEy. 



CONTAMINATION. 

The deep waters are in much less danger of contamina- 
tion from organic sources than are the shallow. The 
organic material, and with it the disease-producing germs, 
is filtered out as the water penetrates through the surface 
sands and the porous rocks. The comparatively deep 
waters may, however, under certain conditions, become 
contaminated. Many of .the sinks occurring in the lime- 
stone area are passageways directly through to the lime- 
stone water horizon. It not infrequently happens that 
small streams flowing through a town find entrance into 
the limestone through these sinks. These streams often 
receive trash, rubbish and filth of various kinds. The im- 
purities carried by the streams often reach the under- 
ground water supply without having been filtered or suffi- 
ciently exposed to the sunshine. The water in such streams 
should be kept as free from organic impurities as possible. 
Wells from which a large amount of water is pumped nec- 
essarily draw on the water supply from the surrounding 
area to some considerable extent and may thus receive 
contaminated water carried into the limestone by these 
streams. The accompanying sketch illustrates the relation 
that may exist between a sink and a nearbv well. 







Fig. 6, — Illustrating danger of contamination of a well by im- 
pure water entering through a sink. The water flowing into the 
sink enters a cavity in the limestone and spreads through the 
open spaces in the rock, some of it probably reaching near-by 
wells. 



UNDERGROUND WATER SUPPLY. 43 

The danger of contamination from the bored wells used 
to carry off sewage is discussed on pages 64 to 67. 

Contamination as commonly used refers to organic con- 
tamination. Water also takes minerals into solution 
which may be considered as mineral contamination. For 
drinking purposes the minerals thus dissolved may be 
beneficial or injurious, according to the minerals dis- 
solved and the amount in solution. For irrigating pur- 
poses, they are usually not injurious and may even be 
beneficial as many of the waters contain from a trace to 
one or two parts per million of phosphoric acid. For 
boiler and household purposes the mineral solids in solu- 
tion are detrimental The amount of minerals in solution 
in the water increases, as previously stated, in a general 
way with the depth of the well. The deepest well in cen- 
tral Florida of which an analysis has been made is the 
well of the Pearson Oil Co., in Citrus County. This well 
has a reported depth of 1900 feet. The solids in solution 
amount to 6474 parts per million, the water being unfit 
for use. The second deepest well is that of the Ocala 
Water Co. at Ocala. This well has a depth of 1250 feet, 
and is cased to the bottom. The mineral solids in solution 
amount to 659 parts per million. The City well at Live 
Oak has a depth of 1080 feet, and yet supplies water rela- 
tively low in mineral solids (219 parts per million) . The 
casino- in this well, however, is reported to reach only a 
short^distance into the limestone and this fact doubtless 
explains the relatively low proportion of solids. Water 
may, and doubtless does, enter the boring from all depths 
below the termination of the casing, and notwithstanding 
the considerable depth of the well the principal water 
suDply in this ease probably comes from no great depth. 
The mineral solids in solution in the wells of medium 

depth in central Florida usually range between 125 and 

275 parts per million. 



44 floeida geological survey. 

Artesian Prospects. 

The conditions which exist in central Florida are not 
favorable for obtaining flowing wells. The crest of the an- 
ticline lies not far from the center of the peninsula. The 
dip from the crest is most rapid to the east. Under these 
conditions pressure sufficient to cause a flow along the 
«ide of the anticline would result from the presence of 
an overlying relatively impervious stratum acting as a 
confining agent, and preventing the escape of the water. 
In the absence of this confining stratum a flow may still be 
obtained, provided the resistance to the passage of the 
water through the inclined stratum is sufficiently great. 
The dip to the east carries the limestone beneath impervi- 
ous strata with the result that a flow is obtained along the 
St. Johns Elver and along the east coast. To the south 
likewise later formations rest upon the Vicksburg. To 
the west, however, the Vicksburg limestone lies at or near 
the surface to the coast, such deposits as rest upon it 
Ijeing thin and of local extent. 

The shading on the map indicates those parts of the 
State in which flowing wells may be obtained. There are 
as will be seen, two principal artesian areas : the East 
Coast area and the Southern Gulf Coast area. Flowins: 
wells on the east coast have been obtained as far south as 
Pailm Beach, although the water in the well at this last 
locality was too salty for use. The Gulf Coast ^rea ex- 
tends rather farther north than is indicated on the map, 
flowing wells at or near the sea level having been obtained 
along the Pinellas Peninsula. Flowing wells occur locally 
in some sections not indicated on the map, as at Kissim- 
mee and along the Gulf coast of west Florida. The loca- 
tion of a number of these wells is indicated on the map by 
a cross. 

Of the counties covered by this bulletin, two, namely 
fLakje and Marion, extend eastward into the St. Johns 
Eiver area of artesian flow. On the west coast a flowing 
well, the Pearson Oil Co. well, has been obtained in Citrus 



Florida Geological Survey. 



Bulletin No. 1, Pl. III. 




AREAS OP ARTESIAN FLOW IN FLORIDA. 



UNDERGROUND WATER SUPPLY. 45 

County. The water, however is too salty for use. A flow 
has been obtained in a few instances from wells at low 
surface elevation in the lake region of Lake County. These 
depend apparently upon local conditions. 

Of the deep wells that have been drilled, some have not 
been prioperly cased, and hence do not afford a test as to 
artesian flow. One deep well of the interior, that of the 
Ocala city water supply, however, is cased the full depth 
of 1250 feet. The surface elevation at this locality is be- 
tween 100 and 110 feet above sea-level and the water 
stands in this well 65 to 70 feet from the surface. A 
flow from this depth is therefore not to be expected in 
central Florida, since in this section the average surface 
elevation is from 60 to 150 feet. 



GEOLOGICAL RESULTS OF UNDERGROUND 
CIRCULATION. 

The topography of a region is the product of all thu 
agencies that have acted upon the land since its formation. 
Sedimentary deposits when formed usually lie horizontal 
or nearly so. Such deposits when elevated, unless vio- 
lently distorted or folded, form dry land areas, which are 
either level, with minor irregularities, or have a uniform 
slope. As soon as exposed, however, eroding agencies 
begin to develop irregularities in the land surface. Evi- 
dence of violent upheavel, distortion or folding, other than 
very mild flexures, is lacking in Florida. The topographic 
features of the State are thus mainly the result of the 
combined action of the eroding agencies which have been 
working since the first appearance of the peninsula as 
dry land. 

Among these agencies of erosion, underground water 
has acted in Florida under exceptionally favorable condi- 
tions. In areas of considerable slope, and with relatively 
impervious formations, the surface run-ojffi is large. Under 
these conditions those features of topography determined 
by the rapid downward cutting of the surface streams and 
their tributaries predominate. In Florida the surface 
felope is slight. The open nature of the soil and rock per- 
mits the greater part of the water to enter the earth, 
establishing subterranean rather than surface drainage. 
The rocks are prevailingly calcareous and soluble. Under 
these conditions the work of the underground water pre- 
dominates over surface erosion. In central Florida the 
topography, soil, and general surface features are deter- 
mined to a large extent by the work of underground water. 

Solution. 

Solution is the most apparent, and geologically the most 
important result of underground water circulation. Rain 
water, while passing through the air, takes into solution 
a small amount of COf gas. To this is added organic and 
mineral acids taken up while passing through the soil. 
Increased pressure, as the water descends into the earth, 
enables the water to hold in solution greater quantities of 



UNDERGROUND WATER SUPPLY. 47 

gases, acids and salts, all of which greatly increase the 
dissolving power of the water. 

That underground water is efficient as a solvent is evi- 
dent from the analyses of well and spring waters. Rain 
water entering the earth with almost no solids in solution, 
returns to the surface through springs and wells with ji 
load of mineral solids in solution determined by the length 
of time it has been in the ground, the distance traveled, 
and the character of the rocks and minerals with which 
dt comes in contact. 

Amount op Mineral Solids Removed in Solution. 

The mineral matter thus taken into solution is carried 
along with water, and, while some of it is re-deposited, a 
large amount is removed annually. 

An estimate of the total mineral solids thus removed is 
difficult. A conception of the largeness of the amount 
removed is obtained from a consideration of some of the 
individual springs. 

The water of Silver Springs contains, as shown by 
analysis, 274 parts solids per million parts water. Other- 
wise expressed, each million pounds of water is carrying 
with it 274 pounds of solids in solution. Silver Spring is 
estimated to flow a little more than three million pounds 
of water per minute (368,913 gallons). The interior of 
Florida is thus being carried into the ocean through Sil- 
ver Springs at the rate of more than 340 pounds per min- 
ute, or about six hundred tons per day. 

The total solids removed in solution through six other 
springs of central Florida, expressed in tabular form, 

gives the following results : 

Total solids Est. flow Solids re- 
Name of Spring. County. parts per (gals, per moved lbs. 

mil.*) min.) per day. 

Blue Marion 112.1 349,166 469,698 

Blue Levy 196.8 25,000 59,040 

Ichatucknee Columbia 311.6 180,000 457,056 

Newland Suwannee 233.5 75,000 210,150 

Weekiwachee.... Hernando 227.8 100,000 273.360 

White Sulphur... Hamilton 166.6 32,400 ^64,774 

Suwannee Suwannee 332.7 52,000 207,605 

*Organic matter is deducted from the total solids as given for 
Suwannee Sulphur and White Sulphur Springs. The organic mat- 
ter occurring in the other springs is of small amounts and was 
not separately determined. 



48 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SUEVBY. 

As the basis of an estimate of the total solids removed 
annually from the interior, let it be assumed, (1) that the 
average total solids in spring water amounts to as much 
as 219 parts per million, this average being obtained from 
eight of the typical large springs of central Florida; (2) 
that the annual escape of the underground water approxi. 
mates the annual in-take, amounting, as previously esti- 
miated (p. 16), to 460,536,689 gallons per square mile. 
Upon these estimates the mineral solids removed amount 
to a little more than four hundred tons annually per 
spuare mile. 

Of the minerals thus removed, calcium carbonate or 
limestone greatly predominates, exceeding the combined 
weight of all other minerals. From the analyses it ap- 
pears that magnesium carbonate, magnesium and calcium 
sulphates are present in variable, although usually lim- 
ited, quantities. Chlorides are normally present in small 
amount, although occasionally, as in the case of Perrian 
Spring, they are exceptionally high. Silica is present in 
amounts varying from 5 to 25.5 parts per million. Traces 
of phosphoric acid and of iron and alumina are usually 
present. 

The several undetermined factors which enter into the 
above estimates of mineral solids removed make it diffi- 
cult to formulate a concrete statement of the rate of low- 
ering of the general surface level. Nevertheless, such state- 
ments are desired and have a comparative rstlue. Assuming 
for the rock removed, most of which is limestone, an aver- 
age specific gravity of 2.5, a layer one foot thick over one 
square mile should weigh about two and one-sixth million 
tons. The calculated rate of removal of this rock is gbrut 
four hundreds tons per square mile per year. From these 
estimates it would appear that the surface level of the cen- 
tral peninsular section of Florida is being lowered by 
solution at the rate of a foot in five or six thousand years. 

Underground Cavities. 

The estimates given on the previous page, even allowing 
for a wide margin of error, indicate the very great amount 



UNDERGROUND WATER SUPPLY. 49 

of mineral solids that is being removed in solution from 
the interior of the State annually. The indications are 
that this process of solution has continued uninterrupt- 
edly throughout a period of time counted by thousands of 
years. The effects are everywhere apparent. Solution cavi- 
ties are exceedingly numerous in the underlying limestone ; 
so much so that it is unusual for a boring to go to any 
considerable depth without striking a cavity. In some 
cases the rock is truly honeycombed with cavities, and no 
boring has reached a depth beyond the zone of their occur- 
rence. It is possible that deposits too soft to support the 
drills are occasionally struck and are sometimes mistaken 
for cavities, but that many of these wells actually end in 
cavities is not to be doubted. Shaler maintains that the 
presence of these cavities at a great depth in the limestone 
necessarily implies a considerable elevation of the penin- 
sula at the time of their formation.* The writer agrees 
with the view that oscillations in the level of the peninsula 
have occurred, a former greater elevation being indicated 
by certain old valleys now filled with sand and clay. How- 
ever, he believes it unnecessary to assume elevation to 
laccount for the cavities. It is without doubt true that 
solution goes on more rapidly in the zone above the under- 
ground water level. That solution continues below the 
water level is sufficiently evident, however, from the fact 
already noted that the total mineral solids in the water 
increases on an average with the depth from which the 
water comes. Although the return circulation is slow, 
there is no doubt that some of the water from great depth 
returns through springs and otherwise escapes into the 
ocean, carrying with it its load of mineral solids, thn« 
forming and enlarging cavities. 

Sink Holes. 

The surface of the interior of Florida is dotted with 
sink holes of all sizes, from a few inches to several rods in 
diameter. Their circular outline and often great diepth, 
render them noteworthy features of the landscape. They 

♦Evidences as to tho Change of Sealevel. Geol. Soc. Am., Bull. 
VL, 1895, p. 155. 1 



50 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL, SURVEY. 

occur irregularly and are not uniformly distributed. Cer- 
tain sections underlaid by readily soluble limestones are 
particularly liable to sinks. 

An account of the manner of formation of these sinks 
has been given by the writer in a previous publication,* 
This account is, in part, as follows : -'When first formed, 
the typical sink throughout this area (interior of Flor- 
ida) , is an opening leading from the surface through the 
superficial deposits to or into the limestone below. Many 
of these sinks are perfectly cylindrical, not funnel-shaped. 
This is especially true of the smaller sinks. As a result of 
the subsequent caving of the banks, ^e bottom usually 
becomes clogged and the sides sloping. The formation 
of these sinks is practically instantaneous and results 
from a sudden caving of the earth. In size they vary 
from a few feet to many rods in diameter. So frequent is 
their formation in certain sections, notably the phos- 
phate mining area of Alachua and Columbia Counties 
that one must be on the lookout in driving through the 
country for newly formed sinks. Indurated layers exposed 
along the sides of the sinks are rough-edged and bear evi- 
dence of fracture due to the sudden giving away and 
breaking under the weight of the load above. The def>th 
of the sinks is probably quite variable. As a rule, they 
reach through and connect with the permanent unde^*- 
ground water horizon. Some reach much below the water 
line.'' 

''A sink of this type was examined by the writer within 
a fev^' hours after its formation about one mile south of 
Juliette, in Marion county, in .1905. This was a small 
sink, not more than eight feet in diameter, and of the 
usual cylindrical form. The sides down to the water level 
were, so far as could be determined, entirely of clay. The 
sink, which had formed directly under the railroad track, 
was caused possibly by the jar of a passing train, the 
engine of which had passed safely over. The water rose 
immediately in the sink to the static head of the water in 
that locality." 

^'The writer recalls having often seen similar tubular 

"^Science, Vol. XXVI., p. 417, 1907. 



UNDERGROUND WATER SUPPLY. 51 

oj)enings reaching from the surface to the runway of 
abandoned coal mines, the '^cave-in" occurring in these 
cases through a thickness of forty or fifty feet of 
clays and shales. From analogy it seems probable that 
the formation of the sinks in question results from a 
gradual caving of the clay from the bottom, assisted, per- 
haps, by the removal mechanically of a part of the mate- 
rial by underground water. Finally a point is reached at 
which the entire remaining mass suddenly gives way. 
While some of these sinks are in clay formations entirely, 
others break through a considerable thickness of lime- 
stone." 

Sink holes are characteristic of that part of the Stat© 
in which soluble limestone lies at or near the surface. If 
the limestone is covered by too g/reat a thickness of clays 
or other impervious formations, sink holes do not foiiu. 
Nor do sinks occur in areas of artesian flow, since the im- 
pervious strata which retain the artesian water likewise 
prevent the downward percolation of surface water neces. 
sary to the formation of a sink. 

Sinks after being formed tend to fill up by the caving 
of the sides, and as a result of the debris washed and 
blown into them. All ages of sinks, from the new to the 
old and almost obliterated, are to be observed. The new 
sink is recognized at once by its almost perpendicular 
sides, and by the fresh untarnished appearance of suck 
rocks and clays as are exposed along the side. The some- 
what older sink is recognized by the beginning of a growth 
of hard wood vegetation along its sides. The appearance 
of the sink at later stages in its history will depend upon 
local conditions and especially whether it is in a clay oc 
in a limestone region. Sinks located in a clay region, of 
which those on the grounds of the State University at 
Gainesville are good examples, will usually become 
clogged at the bottom by the clay and mud washed into 
them. The banks then slump and wash down, the slope 
becoming less steep. Surface w^ater collects, foraiing 
a pond and in the course of time the sink is filled, leav- 
ing hardly more than a depression. Sinks located in a 
limestone country, or with surrounding rock strong 



52 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. 

enough to prevent rapid wash and falling of the sides 
resist filling up longer. Under these conditions the sink 
remains open at the bottom, that is, retains its connection 
with the deep water horizon indefinitely, the water that 
runs into it from the sides passing out through the bot- 
tom. An illustration of such a sink is the DeviPs Mill 
Hopper, near Gainesville. This large sink is rather old, 
as indicated by the vegetation, along the sides and in the 
bottom. Some mud and clay has washed in, but the outlet 
through the bottom is still sufficiently open to permit the 
water to escape. In its last stages a sink appears merely 
as a depression and is finally obliterated. The location of 
an old sink or solution hole is occasionaly discovered in 
the course of well drilling. 

A description of the formation of a sink contained in 
Bartram's Travels (179|) may serve to illustrate the im- 
pression made by this unusual occurrence upon early 
English travelers and upon the Indians. The account is 
given as related to Bartram by a trader, who was an eye 
witness to the occurrence, and is confirmed, Bartram 
states, by one or two other traders and by the Indians. 
The account is as follows :* 

"This trader being near the place (before it had any visi- 
ble existence in its present appearance) about three years 
ago (as he was looking for some horses which he expected 
to find in these parts) when, on a sudden, he was astonished 
by an inexpressible rushing noise, like a mighty hurricane 
or thunder storm, and looking around, he saw the earth over- 
flowed by torrents of water, which came, wave after wave, 
rushing^down a vale or plain very near him, which it filled 
with water, and soon began to overwhelm the higher grounds, 
. attended with a terrific noise and tremor of the earth; recov- 
ering from his first surprise, he immediately resolved to pro- 
ceed for the place from whence the noise seemed to come, 
and soon came in sight of the incomparable fountain, and 
saw, with amazement, the floods rushing upwards many feet 
high^ and the expanding waters, which prevailed every way, 
spreading themselves far and near: he at length concluded 
(he said) that the fountains of the deep were again broken 
up, and that a universal deluge had commenced, and instantl/ 

*Travels through North a-nd South Carolina, Georgia, East and 
West Florida, by William Bartram, Philadelphia, 1791, p. 239. 



p 

O 

O 
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c 

M 

K 
O 




O 

o 
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02 

H 

o 

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h4 



UNDERGROUND WATER SUPPLY. 53 

turned about and fled to alarm the town, about nine miles 
distance, but before be could reach it he met several of the 
inhabitants, who, already alarmed by the unusual noise, were 
hurrying on towards the place, upon which he returned with 
the Indians, taking their stand on an eminence to watnh its 
progress and the event: it continued to jet and flow in this 
manner for several days, forming a large, rapid creek or 
river, descending and following the various courses and wind- 
ings of the valley, for the distance of seven or eight miles, 
emptying itself into a vast savanna, where was a lake and 
sink which received and gave vent to its waters." 

"The fountain, however, gradually ceased to overflow, and 
finally withdrew itself beneath the common surface of the 
earth, leaving this capacious bason of waters, which, though 
continually near full, hath never since overflowed." 

This sink, known at that time as '-Alligator Hole," is 
located, as shown by the text, in the northwestern part of 
Levy County in the vicinity of Manatee Springs, and not 
far from the ancient Indian village and trading station of 
Talahasochte. The account by Bartram is doubtless some- 
what embellished. The least reliable feature, perhaps, is 
the amount of water reported to flow from the opening. 
It is true, however, that the static head of the under- 
ground water of this part of the county is sufficient to 
bring the water within a few feet of the general surface 
level. Under these conditions a temporary flow doubtless 
occurred, due to the r-ebound of the water following the 
eavins: of the earth. 



■^to 



Disappearing Streams. 

The abrupt disappearance of small or medium-sized 
streams into the depth of the earth is a not uncommon 
feature of inland Florida, giving rise occasionally to no 
little wonderment. The streams enter the earth through 
ginks of the character of those described above. 

After the formation of a sink it invariably happens that 
some part of the rainfall from the immediately surround- 
ing area as a result of natural depressions, flows over 
the edge and into the sink. In doing so the water will 
necessarily begin the cutting of a ditch across the edge. 
The deeper the ditch is cut the more readily is tne wa-er 



54 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. 

enabled to enter the sink. The farther- the ditch is extended 
headwards from the edge of the sink the more water it 
receives. This small start is the beginning of the develop- 
ment of a disappearing stream. The subsequent history 
of the stream is determined by the character of the rock 
through which it has to cut, and the length of time it is 
allowed to operate. Given sufficient time, the rivulet cuts 
headwards, increasing its drainage area, gathering more 
water, and attaining to the respectable size of a stream. 
The kind of a valley cut by the stream, w^hether witk 
steep or sloping sides, with waterfalls or without; with 
uniform or with interrupted grade; is determined by the 
kind of deposits through which or over which it flows* 
The stream in these respects develops as do other streams 
cutting back from their origin. Thus, if the deposits 
through which it is cutting are of uniform hardness the 
bed of the stream will have a uniform slope. If, on the 
other hand, the deposits are made up of alternately hard 
and soft layers, the stream crossing the edge of the hard 
layers and falling onto the more easily eroded softer lay- 
ers forms waterfalls. 

High Falls, about nine miles south of Lake City, in 
Columbia County, illustrates a stream which, originating 
from a sink, has cut back a half mile or so through vari- 
ous kinds of deposits, and has developed a deep canyon in 
which are found rapids, many small pot holes, and other 
features more or less out of the ordinary for Florida 
streams. 

A second type Of disappearing stream, or rather of a 
stream having a different history, in that it becomes a 
disappearing stream by accident, is illustrated by Falling 
Creek, in Columbia County. This stream flowed originally 
into the Suwannee River. In the course of time, however, 
a sink formed in or near its bed. The sink was of large 
size and of considerable depth, and resulted in deflecting 
the course of the stream. The time since the formation 
of the sink and the deflection of the stream is measured 
by the depth and the length of the canyon that has been 
cut. The alternating strata of hard and soft rock at this 
locality have resulted in the formation of a waterfall, aud 



UNDERGROUND WATER SUPPLY. 55 

a measurement of the average recession of this waterfall 
obtained by observations running through a- series of 
years, would, perhaps, afford a basis for an approximate 
estimate of the time which has elapsed since the format 
tion of the sink. At first this waterfall was located at 
the Cidge of the sink. Little by little the waterfall hasf 
receded upstream until it has reached its present position, 
nearly a mile above the sink. The fact that Falling Creek 
has a deeper and a longer canyon than has H!igh'Pall» 
does not necessarily indicate a greater age for Falling 
Creek sink. The stream which enters Falling Creek was 
an established stream carrying a regular supply of water 
at the time the sink was formed, hence began the cutting 
of the falls with full force at once. High Falls, on the 
contrary, had to commence its history under very different 
conditions. At the time of the formation of the sink there 
was no ready esta.blished stream. On the contrary, the 
stream itself had to be developed, and still carries much 
less water than does Falling Creek. High Falls sink may, 
therefore, be actually older, notwithstanding the shorte* 
canyon cut, than is Falling Creek sink. 

The subsequent course of streams entering sinks is a 
matter of conjecture, one of two conditions may prevail. 
It is impossible that after entering the limestone the 
stream is confined to a restricted channel, and hence 
forms in a real sense an underground stream. This condi- 
tion probably prevails in the vicinity of large springs or 
other point of outlet for underground water. Most of the 
streams, however, after passing below the ground water 
level, probably lose their identity as streams and mingle 
with the general supply of underground water. 

Solution Basins. 

Associated with sinks and disappearing streams are 
solution basins. The basins, like the sinks, are due to the 
more rapid solution of the rocks underlying one locality 
than those of another. The process is similar in either 
case, the lowering of the basin being in fact attended by 
the formation of sinks. The occurrence of many sinks 



56 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. 

indicate a locality that is being carried down by solntfoo 
more rapidly than the surrounding area. This rapid soli> 
tion continues until the basin is reduced almost or quite 
to the underground water level. 

Upon approaching the underground water level the rate 
of solution is checked, owing to the fact that solution goes 
on more rapidly above than below the water level. From 
this time enlargement of the basin continues through for- 
mation of sinks at the sides, the formation of each sink 
enlarging the total area of the basin. 

Basins of this type are very common in the State. When 
dry they are known as '^prairies" ; when filled with water 
they become lakes. Numerous illustrations may be found 
in the interior of the State, -Tayne's Prairie," at Gaines- 
ville, together with suiTOunding small basins, may be men- 
tioned as a typical example. This basin in the southeast- 
ern part of Alachua County, represents a section in which 
underground solution has greatly reduced the origioal sur- 
face level. At an earlier stage the drainage from this part 
of the county passed off through Orange Lake and the 
Oklawaha Eiver to the St. Johns River, the tributaries of 
the drainage system taking their origin in what is now 
the plateau region of northeast Alachua County. The 
soluble Vicksburg Limestone underlying this section was 
removed by solution more rapidly than the less soluble 
rocks to the east, with the result that the basin has now 
been low^ered to a level of from 60 to 65 feet This is equal 
to or below that of the former outlet through Orange 
Lake. The drainage from this section now passes off 
through Alachua Sink. If for any reason the flow of water 
into the sink is checked, the "Prairie" becomes a lake. 
Under extremely heavy rainfall the lake would probably 
rise to a level permitting escape through its former outlet. 

Deposition and Replacement. 

The work of underground water is not confined to solu- 
tion. The mingling of water in the earth may be regarded 
as a chemical experiment in which many ingredients are 
brought together. Under these conditions chemical reac- 
tions take place. In calcareous rocks solution predomi- 



UNDERGROUND WATER SUPPLY. 57 

Hates ; but deposition and replacement also occur. Shells 
and corals in the limestone, originally calcareous, have in 
many instances become silicified. This is invariably true 
of the shells imbedded in the fiint masses, indicating that 
the flint itself has been deposited by underground water 
since the formation of the limestone. Locally, the lime- 
stone has become very compact and the fossils destroyed, 
a result also brought about by the underground water. In 
the case of the flint masses the process has been, appar- 
ently, replacement of the calcium carbonate (Ca CO a) 
by silica (SiO^) held in solution in the water. Under 
these conditions the form and structure of the shells are 
retained, although the substance of the shell is changed 
from calcium carbonate to silica. A similar process ap- 
parently accounts for the formation of certain rock phos- 
phates, calcium phosphate in this case replacing calcium 
carbonate. 

These changes due to the underground water ultimately 
affect the topography. The flint masses resist erosion and 
stand out as ridges, while the limestone erodes in some 
localities more rapidly than in others. The resulting 
topography is characterized by the rounded hills and the 
solution valleys, seen in much of central Florida. 



5-GeoBiill 



DRAINAGE OF LAKES, PONDS AND SWAMP LANDS BY 

DEEP WELLS. 



The low elevation of the Florida peninsula, the result- 
ing general flatness of the country, tog-ether with the 
slightly rolling topography, leads in many localities to 
the formation of lakes, ponds, swamp and marsh lands. 
The drainage of the ponds and marshes, and indeed even 
of the lakes, becomes, under certain conditions, a matter 
of the first importance to the healthfulness and develop- 
ment of the locality. Not infrequently lands valuable for 
cultivation are rendered unavailable by overflow during 
the rainy season. Ponds are often unsightly and a menace 
to health, while the lakes, ordinarily desirable, may, under 
certain conditions, require partial drainage to avoid over- 
flow of the surrounding lands. Many of the ponds and 
lakes lie in depressions below the general surface level, 
rendering surface drainage impossible or impracticable. 

Natural Drainage Wells. 

Ponds and lakes of this character are not infrequently 
drained by sinks occurring in them. The existence of a sur- 
face pond or lake is dependent upon the occurrence of a 
Telatively impervious sub-stratum which prevents the 
downward percolation of the water. The sinks afford an 
opening through the impervious stratum. The manner of 
thje formation of sinks has been already described. As a 
result of slow solution a cavity of considerable size is 
formed in the underlying rock, the cavity gradually en- 
larging until the overlying deposits break and cave sud- 
denly. When such a sink forms, the water rushes through 
rapidly, enters the pervious rock below and is conducted 
away 'to join the underground supply. Illustrations of 
drainage through sinks in this way may be taken from 
almost any county of the interior of Florida. Payne's 
Prairie, or Alachua Lake, near Gainesville, and Lake 
Jackson, near Tallahassee, will serve as illustrations of 
large lak:es drained in this way. Lake Jackson was thus 
drained in 1907. This lake is of irregular shape and has 



UNDERGROUND WATER SUPPLY. ^ 

an area of several thousand acres. In April, 1907 a sink 
formed near the southwestern side of the basin, Vapidly 
draining the lake. In June a second sink, formed to the 
south of the old sink, carried off the water in a local de- 
pression surrounding it. Mud and surface material were 
carried into the sink, with the result that the underground 
outlet was soon clogged, preventing further escape. Seep- 
age from the sides, together with the rainfall of the fol- 
lo^ng summer, converted the basin into a lake again 
, Piayne's Prairie at Gainesville, has an area of 18 or 20 
square miles. This section was visited by William Bar- 
tram in the summer of m«. It was then known as the /* ?/" 

Alachua Savanna," and afforded pasturage to large 
herds of horses and cattle belonging to the Alachua tribe 
of Indians. With regard to the sinks, Bartram says:/, 

"We alighted in a pleasant vista, turning our horses to 
graze while we amused ourselves with exploring the borders 
of the Great Sink. In this place a group of rocky hills almost 
surround a large basin, which is the general receptacle of the 
water, draining from every part of the vast savanna, by lat. 
eral conduits, winding about, and one after another joining 
the main creek or general conductor, which at length delivers 
them into this sink; where they descend by slow degrees, 
through rocky caverns, into the bowels of the earth, whence 
they are carried by secret subterraneous channels into other 
receptacles and basins." 

"There are three great doors or vent holes through the 
rocks in the sink, two near the center and the other one near 
the rim, much higher up than the other two, which was con- 
spicuous through the clear water.** 

Although the two large sinks were in existence then a« 
noWj the above description appears to refer more particu- 
larly to the North Sink, the first approached by Bartram. 
When visited by James Pearce in 1824 this basin was still 
a dry land area. Pearce says of it:^ 

"In a section of the hilly district of East Florida called 
Alachua, I visited a sink filled with water, covering an acre. 
It is the outlet for a mill-stream that winds through a hand- 
some prairie, and plunging into the rocky basin takes a sub- 
terranean course." 

^Bartram's Travels, L. C, p. 203. 

2 Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. IX, 1825, p. 125. 



60 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. 

For nearly fifty years after Pearce's visit the prairie 
was used for cattle grazing and to some extent for farm- 
ing. About 1871, 1 however, the sink became clogged. When 
seen by Professor Eugene Smith in 1880, the basin was 
filled with w^ater, forming a lake. Smith says of it:^ 

"A small creek flowed through this basin, disappearing 
near its northern edge into an underground channel. During 
the great storm of 1871 this outlet was closed, and the 
"prairie" has become a lake several miles wide and from 
fifteen to twenty feet deep." 

The body of water thus formed was known for many 
years as Alachua Lake, and is reported to have been navi- 
gable for small steamers. iDhe lake continued until the 
summer of 1891, when it was gradually lowered and 
drained through a sink. Since this time it h^is, wi^h the 
exception of temporary overflows, continued as dry land. 
Levels were made under the direction of the State Sur- 
vey in October, 1907. The water level in the sink at that 
time was found to be 52.67 feet above sea. The actual 
level of the underground water above sea was then, as 
shown by the water in the Gainesville city well, 50.66 feet 
above sea. The water of the prairie was thus lowered :vt 
that time practically to the underground water level. The 
illustration given in plate VI (facing this page), is made 
from a photograph taken at North Sink at low water stage 
in 1891. The water of the sink at the time the photograph 
was taken in 1891, was several feet lower than when ex- 
amined in 1907. 

Bored Wells. 

A bored well in the bottom of a pond or lake serves as 
an artificial opening through the impervious strata and is 
effective for drainage purposes only when it reaches a 
porous or cavernous stratum. Such artificial openings 
conduct water in the same manner as a sink. It is not to 
be assumed that every lake or basin within the State can 
be drained by bored wells, or that this method of drain- 
age is practicable for all swamp lands. It is scarcely nec- 

iThe date of the clogging of the sink is sometimes given as 
1873. (Bull. U. S. Geol. Surv. 84. p. 94.) 
2 Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. XXI, 18*81, p. 298. 



Florida Geological Survey. 



Bulletin No. 1, Pl. VI. 




WEEKIV/ACHEE SPRING^ IN HERNANDO COUNTY. 




ALACHUA SINK^ LOW WATER STAGE^ 1891. 



UNDERGROUND WATER SUPPLY 61 

essarj to state that this method of drainage can not be 
applied in areas of artesian flow or other sections in 
which the static head of the water is such as to bring it to 
or above the surface level. Many of the basins of the 
interior have been carried down nearly to or quite to the 
underground water level. Under these conditions, it is 
obvious that they can not be drained by wells. 

The possibility of drainage by wells is dependent, first 
of all, upon the geological structure of the underlying for- 
mation. If the water-conducting power of the formation 
reached by the well is slight, a limit is thereby placed 
upon the effectiveness of the well. Unless the flow at the 
bottom of the well is free and ready, the in-take of water 
is necessarily limited. Many of the wells entering the 
limestone reach cavities or porous strata suiBficiently open 
to permit of very free movement of water in the rock, 
either from or into the well. As a general statement, it 
may be said that if the water level in a well is unaffected 
by pumping it may be expected to carry water away rap- 
idly; and conversely, if a well carries away water read- 
ily it may be expected to supply large quantities to the 
pump. The principle involved is the same, namely, the 
free movement of water in the underground formations. 

Assuming free movement of the water at the bottom of 
the well, the rapidity of in-take and hence the eflficiency of 
the well is influenced by (a) size of well; (b) construction 
of well; (c) depth of water above the mouth of the pipe; 
(d) distance from the top of the pipe to the underground 
water level. 

(a) The capacity of a drain pipe increases rapidly 
with, increased diameter. The area of the section of the 
pipe is proportionate to the square of the diameter. Thus 
the area of the cross section of a 12-inch well is nine times 
that of a 4-inch well. Moreover, for a given velocity the 
friction of movement is less in a large than in a small 
pipe. 

(b) The construction of a well also affects its rapidity 
of in-take. When the pipe is cut off squarely at the top 
according to the usual custom, the full capacity of the 
well is not realized. The rapidity of intake may be ap- 



62 I FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. 

preciably increased by the use of a flared or bell-shaped 
mouth at the top of the pipe. 

(c) If the underground water level lies some distance 
from the surface, and if there is free discharge at the bot- 
tom of the well, siphonage or draft-tube action increases 
the rate of flow. When the distance from the top of the 
pipe to the underground water level is 33 feet or over, the 
maximum possible draft-tube head of 32.8 feet may be 
available. 

(d) The influence of the depth of water above the 
mouth of the pipe is as follows: Assuming that there i% 
free discharge at the bottom of the well, the in-take at the 
mouth of the pipe will be proportionate to the square root 
of the depth of the water above the mouth of the pipe. 

Drainage by Wells at Orlando^ Florida. 

The drainage of surface water through bored wells ha« 
been used to great advantage by the citizens of Orlando, 
Florida. A very considerable land area south and east 
of Orlando, embracing possibly fourteen square miles, lies 
in an irregular basin with many lakes, marshes, and 
ponds. The overflow from this area originally drained to 
and disappeared through a natural sink about one milei 
east of the city. This sink became clogged in April, 1904. 
Unsuccessful efforts were made to re-open this sink, first 
by removing hyacinths accumulated around the opening, 
and later by the use of dynamite. In the meantime, heavy 
and continued rains formed a lake around the sink, over- 
flowing the surrounding lands. In August, 1904, efforts 
were made to dispose of the water through drainage wells. 
The first well put down was a two-inch test well. The well 
reached a porous stratum and was thought to justify the 
expense of a larger and deeper well. Difficulty and delay 
were experienced in the drilling, but by August, 1905, two 
wells, one eight-inch and one twelve-inch, put down at the 
side and near the original sink, had been completed. Two 
other wells were started and abandoned owing to the difi- 
culties in drilling. The two successful wells were run- 
ning at full capacity. It was thought probable that the 
two wells already put down would prove sufficient. Heavy 



UNDERGROUND WATER SUPPLY. 63 

rains followed, and by January, 1906, a considerable area, 
including some cultivated ground, was flooded, practically 
all county roads leading into Orlando were partly under 
water and impassable. The colored settlement known as 
Jonestown in the suburbs of Orlando was partly under 
Trater and uninhabitable; the water was approaching the 
city of Orlando itself and the situation was becoming 
alarming. Levels taken by the county authorities indi- 
cated that drainage through surface canals was impossi- 
ble or impracticable. Two additional twelve-inch wells 
were bored in November and December of 1906. The effect 
of these was evident at once, the lake beginning to falL 
By February a third twelve-inch well had been completed^ 
making in all one eight-inch well and four twelve-inch 
wells running at this time. By the end of March the water 
had returned practically to its normal level and has since 
been kept under control. 

Pour of these drainage wells are located near the orig- 
inal sink and have a uniform depth of 140 feet, a cavity 
several feet in diameter having been reached at that depth. 
The fifth well is located one-half mile west of the sink, and 
terminates in a porous stratum at a depth of 340 feet. 

The statement previously made regarding necessity of 
avoiding contamination of streams entering sinks (p. 42) 
applies with equal force to drainage wells. The drainage 
from surrounding residences should not be permitted to 
find its way to lakes and ponds thus drained. 



DISPOSAL OF SEWAGE THROUGH BORED WELLS. 

The question of disposal of sewage is at present seri- 
ously confronting some of the rapidly growing inland 
towns of Florida. A difficulty in the application of meth- 
ods ordinarily in use arises from the prevailing general 
flatness of the country, together with the almost, or 
locally complete, absence of surface streams. This diffi- 
culty is felt scarcely at all by the residents of the country 
districts and of the small villages. The soil is prevail- 
ingly sandy and porous. Sewage in restricted quantities 
is therefore very readily received and purified. With the 
increased growth of the village, however, there results a 
time when the amount of sewage is so considerable that 
a sewerage system becomes a necessity. 

The disposal of sewage through bored wells has been 
practiced to a limited extent at a few localities of inland 
Florida for many years. The wells in use receive usually 
the drainage from private dwellings, or the combined 
drainage from two or three dwellings. Occasionally pub- 
lic buildings, as the court house, city hall, hospital, and 
hotels, are connected up with these wells. With the rapid 
growth of the inland towns during the past few years, the 
number of these private weHs in the towns in which this 
method is used, have been very greatly increased. 

The principles and conditions which permit of disposal 
of sewage through bored wells are precisely those already 
explained in connection with drainage wells and natural 
sink-holes. The sewage is conducted by means of the well 
either to a cavity or to a porous stratum and is carried 
away by the underground water circulation. 

The depth of the wells intended for sewage is exceed- 
ingly variable, in this respect resembling the water wells 
of the same locality. Practically without exception they 
reach and enter the artesian water supply. Extreme range 
in depth is from 35 to 500 feet. In size the wells may vary 
from two to twelve inches. A cemented cesspool is usually 
provided, which in the more carefully constructed wells 
is divided into two divisions. The first division receives 
the solids; the second is for liquids only, and is separated 



UNDERGROUND WATER SUPPLY. 65 

from the first by a screen. The drainage well leads from 
the second division, the opening being guarded by a 
screen. 

The question of possible contamination of the water 
supply through sewage wells is worthy of careful consid- 
eration. As previously stated, most of these wells enter 
the limestone and depend for efficiency upon reaching a 
cavity or a porous layer in the limestone. Water for 
drinking, household, and general purposes is in some 
cases taken from the same limestone formation. Both 
sewage and water wells are of variable depth. It is the 
custom in the construction of both water and sewage 
wells, however, to case the well only to the limestone, or 
to the first hard stratum in the limestone. Under these 
conditions a well may receive water from any or all depths 
below the termination of the casing. The limestone is 
traversed by solution cavities, and is for the most part, of 
porous texture, thus permitting circulation of under- 
ground water. The belief is often expressed that the cavi- 
ties entered by these wells represent rapidly moving un- 
derground streams, and that these quickly carry away any 
and all refuse entering them. If this condition prevailed, 
the case would be but slightly altered, since the rapid 
removal of contaminated water from one locality would 
merely endanger a neighboring locality that happened to 
be on the course of the stream. The information obtained, 
however, fails, as already stated (p. 34), to give evidence 
of such rapidly moving streams. On the contrary, the 
water apparently moves slowly through inter-connecting 
solution cavities and through the porous rock. 

Regarding the inter-connection of solution passages in 
the limestone, Mr. M. L. Fuller states* that "The intimate 
connection of the passages, making to all practical pur- 
poses a network, has been brought out at several points in 
this country by the experiments made for the United 
States Geological Survey by S. W. McCallie at Quitman, 
Georgia; by E. H. Sellards at Ocala, Florida, and by G. 

*Bulletiii Geological Society of America. Vol. XVIII., page 227, 
1907. 



66 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. 

C. Matson at Georgetown, Kentucky, at each of which 
localities salt inserted into sinks or borings found en- 
trance into wells some distance away. In none of the in- 
etances, however, was the movement direct from the point 
of insertion to the well, for the salinity, instead of in- 
creasing enormously, as it would have done if such had 
been the case, showed only relatively moderate fluctua- 
tions. The three limestones, although of widely different 
types, showed the same phenomena in each case, suggest- 
ing that it is a normal characteristic of this class of 
rocks." 

In addition to these direct tests, it has been found that 
in the Florida limestone the water in the sewage wells 
and that in the water wells of approximately equal depth 
is under the same static head. This fact, while not ot 
itself proving inter-connection, lends support to that con- 
clusion. / 

The cesspools in use with most of the sewage wells serve 
as septic tanks. The efficiency of the septic tank for re- 
moving the greater part of the solids from sewage has 
been abundantly demonstrated. It is also known that the 
bacteria originally present in the sewage are also reduced 
in number during the process of fermentation in the cess- 
pool. It has not been shown, however, to what extent the 
disease-producing bacteria, and particularly Bacilliis ty- 
pJwsuSy the germ of typhoid fever, is reduced in this pro- 
cess. On this point Professor L. P. Kinnicutt, head of 
the Department of Chemistry of the Worcester Polytech- 
nic Institute, and Consulting Chemist of the Connecticut 
Sewage Commission, stated that '^very little work has 
been done with reference to the effect of the septic tank 
on bacterial life. The second report of the royal commis- 
sion on sewage disposal of Great Britain quotes experi- 
ments made in Manchester, England, showing that the 
Bacillus coll commvunis diminishes during the septic 
period, and the same effect must be felt by the similar and 
more delicate bacteria such as that of typhoid fever. Simi- 
lar results are shown at Leeds. The witness's opinion was 
that the septic tank reduces the number of B. coli and the 



UNDERGROUND WATER SUPPLY. 67 

more delicate pathogenic germs, and that the total num- 
ber of bacteria is diminished by 10 or 15 per cent."* 

In addition to the reduction of disease germs which 
may be assumed to take place in the receiving chambers in 
use in connection with most of the sewage wells, it is 
apparent that the quantity of water contained in the lime- 
stone is large, and that the inter-connection between the 
wells is indirect. The result is that polluted water intro- 
duced through a sewage well is enormously diluted before 
reaching a water well. One would scarcely maintain, 
however, that partial reduction of the number of disease 
germs, together with great dilution of sewage, is a suffi- 
cient guarantee against the transmission of disease. 

The sewage system which seems to have met with most 
success in the inland towns is partial removal of solids by 
means of the septic tank with subsequent further purifi- 
cation of the liquids by air and sunlight. This method of 
sewage purification is being used by Lake City in Colum- 
bia County and by Gainesville in Alachua County. 



♦Digest of the testimony taken in the case of the State of Mis- 
souri V. the State of Illinois on Pollution of Illinois and Missis- 
sippi Rivers by Chicago Sewage. Water Supp. Paper, XJ. S. Geol. 
Sur. No. 194, p. 285, 1907. 



WATER ANALYSES. 

Water analyses are made for the purpose of determin- 
ing either the mineral constituents or the sanitary quality 
of a water, or both. A mineral analysis differs from a 
sanitary analysis both in the objects sought and in the 
methods employed. The merits 'of a water for use in 
boilers, laundries, and for general commercial and house- 
hold purposes are determined by a mineral analysis. The 
determination of the merits as well as the healthfulness 
of a water far drinking purposes may require both a 
mineral and a sanitary analysis. 

When a quantitative mineral analysis is made, the 
individual mineral constituents in solution in the water 
are tested for and determined in the form of base and 
acid elements. The results of the analysis are frequently 
expressed by the analyst in the form in which the ingre- 
dients are supposed to exist combined in the water. The 
combinations thus expressed, however, are based upon 
theoretical considerations. Many chemists are of the 
opinion that a more exact expression of results is secured 
by listing separately the ingredients determined, withoat 
attempting to express their probable combination. Of the 
analyses which follow, some, including those made 
especially for the Survey work, are expressed according 
to the ingredients determined. Those obtained from 
various sources are published as given by the analyst, 
several of which are recorded according to the probable 
combinations of the ingredients. 

The interpretation of a mineral analysis is an essen- 
tially different matter from the Interpretation of a sani- 
tary analysis. If the mineral analysis indicates a high 
proportion of calcium and magnesium salts, the water is 
recognized as a ^'hard" water, or a Ts^ter requiring much 
soap to produce a lather, and hence less satisfactory for 
laundry and household purposes than a ^^soft" water. 
Similarly the water may be found, on account of encrust- 
ing, corroding, or other constituents present, unsatisfac- 
tory for boiler use, while a high percentage of iron renders 
the water unfit for certain manufacturing purposes. A 



FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. 69 

mineral analj^sisi may also indicate the presence of con- 
stituents either desirable or undesirable in a water intend- 
ed for drinking purposes, and may have an indirect bear- 
ing upon the sanitary quality of the water. Thus, if con- 
Itamin^atiion from human habitation is reaching a well, 
chlorine will be found to be relatively high. A high per- 
centage of chlorine, tiowever, does not necessarily imply 
organic contamination, since chlorine may have been 
taken in solution from the rocks through which the water 
circulates, and hence not indicate contamination. 

In, making a sanitary analysis the chemist determines 
the amount of organic matter present, the nitrates, the 
nitrites, the albiuninoid and free ammonia, the chlorine, 
and usually th^^ total solids. Other mineral constituents 
may or may not be tested for. An estimate of the number 
of bacteria present is also frequently made. The conclu- 
sions as to the fitness of the water for drinking purposes 
are arrived at by indirect methods. The ingredients deter- 
iOined are not of themselves harmful, but are signiricant 
as suggesting the possible presence or absence of disease 
germs. In a sanitary analysis the local conditions sur- 
rounding the well or spring from which the water comes 
are important factors in an interpretation of the results. 
The presence of organic matter, accompanied often by 
ammonia, nitrates and nitrites, is ordinarily suspicious, 
The number of bacteria present is of significance chiefly 
from the fact that when non-disease producing bacteria 
are numerous some of the disease producing forms are 
likely also to occur. 

The analyses which follow are chiefly mineral analyses 
and were made for the purpose of determining the average 
mineral character of the water of the different geological 
formations of central Florida. A few of the analyses 
listed, however, include a determination of the nitrates, 
nitrites, free and albuminoid ammonia, while several 
record the amount of organic and volatile matter pres- 
ent in the water. 



70 ^ FL0RID4 Gi-:OLOGirAL SURVEY. 

Springs. 

Boulware Spring, Gainesville, Alachua County, Fla.. 
Analysis by H. Herzog, Jr., 1898.* 

^ Ingredients (according to probable combination). Parts per 
li. million. 

Calcium carbonate 34.81 

Magnesium carbonate 21.44 

Sulphuric acid none 

Silica 5.21 

Alkaline chlorides (Chlorine 4.08) 8.63 

Alumina 3.71 

Nitrates trace 

Nitrites none 

Free ammonia 043 

Albuminoid ammonia 06 

Oxygen required to oxidize organic matter 1.45 

Organic matter 2.97 

Total solids 76.80 

Magnesia Spring, Hawthorne, Alachua County, Fla. 
Analysis by W. Dickoie.^ 



« 



Ingredients (according to probable combination.). Parts per 

million. 

Calcium bicarbonate 110.1 

Magnesium bicarbonate 33.u 

Sodium bicarbonate 12.6 

Silica 7.7 

Magnesium chloride 16.2 

Sodium chloride 14.0 

Potassium chloride .8 

Lithium chloride trace 

Ammonium trace 

Phosphates and Sulphates trace 

195.0 

Total solids 241.5 

Organic matter and loss on ignition 42.7 

Inorganic nonvolatile 198.8 



*As given in Water Supply Paper U. S. Geol. Sur. No. 102, 1904. 



FLORIDA GSOLOGiCAL SURVEY. 71 



* 



Iron Springy Hawthorne, Fla. Analysis by W. Dickoie. 

Ingredients. Parts per mill. 

Solid matter 51.3 

Organic matter and loss in ignition trace 

Inorganic non-volatile 51.2 

"The iron was originally present as ferrous carbonate, which 
oxydizes by exposure to air and drops as ferric hydrate. In the 
solution are left traces of alumina, ferrous oxide, potassium, sodi- 
um, some calcium, magnesium as the predominant metal, and some 
organic matter. The metals are in combination with chlorine and 
carbonic acid. The reaction of the water is slightly acid (from 
carbonic acid), but after boiling turns alkaline, indicating the 
presence of carbonate of an alkali (soda) and that calcium and 
magnesium are partly present as bicarbonates which precipitate 
partly on boiling." 

Sulphur Springs, Hawthorne, Fla. Analysis by W. 
Dickoie.* 

Ingredients. Parts per mill. 

Total solid matter 273.6 

Organic matter and loss in ignition 21.4 

Total inorganic 252.2 

" Tho sulphuretted hydrogen in sample had already evap. 
orated. Reaction acid: turns alkaline after the free carbonic 
acid is driven out. Contains alkaline carbonates, calcium (pre- 
dominant), magnesium (little), potassium, sodium, traces of iron 
and alumina. Some of the calcium is present as carbonate, some 
as chloride or nitrate. The acids in combination with the metals 
are carbonic, chlorine, nitric, sulphuric (trace) and silicic." 

Ford Spring, Melrose, Fla. Analysis by the State Chem- 
ist of Florida (M. 569), 1906. 

Total solids 48 parts per million. 

Composed of calcium sulphate, magnesium sulphate, and 
sodium chloride. 



*As given in Water Supply Paper U. S. Geol. Surv. No. 102, ' 
p. 270. 1904. 



72 PLOEIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. 

Ichatticknee Springs, Columbda Ck). Analysis for State 
Survey by the State Chemist, 1908. 

Ingredients. Parts per 

million. 

Calcium oxide (CaO ) 89.3 

Magnesium oxide (MgO) 9.7 

Carbonate (COg ) 27.6 

Bicarbonate (HCO3) 420.9 

Sulphate (SOf ) : 9.5 

Chlorine (CI ) 5.3 

Silica (SiOjr) 5.0 

Volatile matter 48.1 

Total solids 211.6 

White Sulphur Springs, Hamilton Co. Analysis by N. 
A. Pratt. 

Ingredients. Parts per 

million. 

Lime 44.00 

Magnesia 8.51 

Potash 7.13 

Soda 18.20 

Carbonic acid .^ 44.18 

Sulphuric acid 17.02 

Chlorine 12.24 

Phosphoric acid with oxide of iron trace 

Silicic acid (soluble) 14.40 

©rganic matter 21.32 

Total solids 188. 

Note. — In addition the water contains Free Gases, viz: Hy- 
drogene sulphide, Carbonic acid. Oxygen, Nitrogen, 

The constituents probably combined as follows: 

Calcic carbonate or bicarb 80.50 

Sodic carbonate 20.91 

Magnesia sulphate 25.53 

Potassic chloride 11.32 

Sodic Chloride 11.23 

Ferrous oxide (Phosphoric acid trace) 1.40 

Silicic acid (soluble) 14.40 

Organic matter 21.32 



UNDERGROUND WATER SUPPLrY. 73 

Weekiwachee Spring, Hernando Co. Analysis by X. P, 
Pratt. 1904. 

Incrusting constituents. Parts per 

million. 

Carbonate of lime 119.78 

Carbonate of magaesia 12.07 

Sulphate of lime 4.65 

Silica 6.77 

Peroxide of iron and alumina trace 

Non-incrusting constituents. 

Magnesium chloride none 

Magnesium sulphate 19.62 

Calcium chloride 6.54 

. Sodium chloride 2.88 

Sodium sulphate 11.97 

Total solids by evaporation 227.84. ^ 

Blue Spring, Levy Co. Analysis for the State Survey by 
the State Chemist, 1907. 

Ingredients. Parts per 

million. 

Calcium oxide (CaO) 49.0 

Magnesium oxide (MgO) 10.50 

Sulphate (SOt) 64.4'<> 

Chlorine (CI ) 35.07 

Silica (SiOj) 5J0- 

Total solids 196.80 

Blue Spring, Mariou Co. Analysis for the State Survey 
by the State Chemist, 1908. 

Ingredients. ^^f,^,^ P®^ 

million. 

Calcium oxide (CaO ) 33.a 

Magnesium oxide (MgO ) 8.7 

Sulphate (SO5 ) ^-^ 

Chlorine (CI ) ^-^ 

Silica (SiOf) 5.3- 

Carbonate (CO3 ) •••• ^'^ 

Bicarbonate (HCO3) .^^15i> 

Total solids •:.•;,•• • ♦. ^.^'^ 

6GeoBul-l 



74 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. 

Salt or Perrian Springs, Marion Co. Analysis for tha 
State Survey by the State Chemist. 1907. 

Ingredients. . Parts per 

million. 

Calcium oxide (CaO ) 322.00 

Magnesium oxide (MgO ) 156.90 

Sulphate (SO^ ) 295.50 

Chlorine (CI ) 1928.48 

Silica (SiOj) 10.00 

Total solids 4908.00 

Salt or Perrian Spring. Sample No. 2. 1907. 

Calcium oxide (CaO ) 151.50 ' 

Magnesium oxide (MgO ) 193.30 

Sulphate (SO^ ) 360.44 

Chlorine (CI ) 1238.97 

Silica (SiO^) 30.00 

Total solids 5322.70 

Salt or Perrian Spring. Sample No. 3. Analysis by A. 
W. Blair. 1901. 

Hardness 1491.24 

Nitrates none 

Nitrites none 

Chlorine 2840. 

Free ammonia .0000 

Albuminoid ammonia .265 



Total solids 6073. 

Silver Springs, Marion Co. Analysis made by the IT. S. 
Oeological Survey, 1907. 

Ingredients. Parts per 

million. 

Calcium 73. 

Magnesiium 9.2 

Sodium and pottassium 9.8 

Iron and alumina trace 

Carbonate 0.0 

Bicarbonate 219. 



UNDERGROUND WATER SUPPLY. 75 

Sulphate 44. 

Chlorine 7.7 

Nitrate 0.20 

Phosphate ( POt ) trace 

Silica ( Si05 ) 13. 

Total solids 274. 

Newland Springs, Suwannee Co. Analysis for the State 
Survey by the State Chemist. 1908. 

Ingredients. Parts per 

million. 

Calcium oxide (CaO) 90.0 

Magensium (MgO) 19.0 

Carbonate (CO3 ) '. 22.8 

Bicarbonate (HCO.J 284.8 

Sulphate (SO^ ) 12.8 

Chlorine (CI ) 3.9 

Silica (SiOj) 27.5 

Volatile matter 34.5 

Total solids 233.5 

Suwannee Sulphur Springs, Suwannee Co. Analysis 
made by C. H. Chandler, and C. E. Pellew. 1893. 

Ingredients (according to probable combinations) Parts per 

million. 

Bicarbonate of lime 188.91 

Bicarbonate of magnesia 69.70 

Bicarbonate of soda 16.47 

Sulphate of lime 30.46 

Sulphate of potassa 10.33 

Chloride of sodium 10.62 

Oxide of iron and alumina 2.59 

Silica 13.79 

Organic and volatile matter 37.49 

Total solid matter 370.33 



76 klobida geological survey, 

Wells. 

Alachua Ice and Water Co., Alachua, Alachua Co. 
Depth 216 feet; use, ice manufacture. Analysis by State 
Chemist. (M 436, 1905.) Record p. 88, No. 1. 

Total solids 320 parts per million, consisting of carbonate of 
lime, sulphate of magnesia, and sodium chloride. 

City Well, Gainesville, Alachua Co. Depth 194 feet; 
use, city water supply. Analysis for State Survey by 
State Chemist. Record p. 88, No. 1908. 

Ingredients. Parts per 

million. 

Calcium oxide (CaO ) 49.8 

Magnesium oxide (MgO) 5.3 

Sulphate (SOf ) 5.5 

Chlorine (CI ) 10.6 

Carbonate (CO3 ) 7.2 

Bicarbonate (HCO3 ) 255.5 

Silica (SiOir ) 3.8 

Volatile matter 24.3 

Total solids 139.6 

IMamond Ice Co., Gainesville, Alachua Co. Depth 316 
feet; use, ice manufacture. Analysis by U. S. Geological 
Survey. Record p. 88, No. 5. 1908. 

Ingredients. Parts per 

millioa 

Calcium (Ca) 52. 

Magnesium (Mg) 11. 

Sodium and Potassium (Na K) 11. 

Iron and Alumina (Fe Al) 0.02 

. Carbonate (CO3) 0.00 

Bicarbonatt (HCO; ) 210. 

Sulphate (SOj) 8.1 

Chlorine (Gl ) 8.3 

Nitrate (NO3) 2.2 

Phosphate (PO^) trace 

•Slica (SiOj) 17. 

Total solids 212. 



UNDERGROUND WATER SUPPLY. 77 

B. F. Williamson, Gainesville. Depth 276 feet; use> 
manufacture. Analysis by H. Herzog, Jr. Record p. 88, 
No. 7. 

Ingredients. Parts per 

million. 

Calcium oxide (CaO) (Calcic carbonate 126.05) . . 78.61 

Magnesium oxide (MgO) (Magnesic carb. 74.46) . . 35.62 

Iron and alumina oxides (FeAl) 1.70 

Sodium oxide (Na) (Alkalies) 3.86 

Chlorine (CI) (Na CI 9.79) 5.93 

Silica (SiO:j) 31.90 

Sulphuric anhydride (Calcic sulp. 19.23) 11.31 

Hydrogen sulphide (H^S) 1.72 

Organic matter (loss in ignition except CO;?) 28.00 

Mineral matter 168.93 

Total solids 306.00 

City Well. Lake City. Depd:h 400 feet; use, city well. 
Analysis made by the U. S. Geologicn^ Survey, 1907, Rec- 
ord p. 88, No. 24. 

Ingredients. Parts per 

million. 

Calcium (Ca) 47. 

Magnesium (Mg) 18. 

Sodium and Potassium (Na K) 14. 

Iron and alumina (PeAl) 0.00 

Carbonate (rOg ) 11. 

Bicarbonate (HCOg ) 215. 

Sulphate (SOf) 10. 

Chlorine (CI ) 9.8 

Nitrate (NO3 ) 0.20 

Silica (SiO,0 36. 

Total solids 256. 

Old City Well, Lake City. Depth 400 feet ; use, formerly 
tused for city supply. Analysis made by the State Chemist 
(M. 417, 1905) . Record p. 88, No. 25. 

Total solids 200 parts per million, consisting of carbonate of 
lime, sulphate of magnesia, chloride of sodium and silica. 



HB FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVBY. 

Pearson Oil Well, Crystal River, Citrus Co. Depth re- 
poirted about 1900 feet. Analysis made for State Survey 
by State Chemist, 1907. Record p. 88, No. 11. 

Ingredients. Parts per mill. 

Calcium oxide (CaO) 1385.0 

Magnesium oxide (MgO) — . 480.6 

Sulphate (SOt) 2684.0 

Chlorine (CI ) 903.9 

Silica (SiOz) 30.0 

Total solids 6474.0 

Hoopes Brothers and Darlington, Brooksville, Her- 
nando Co. Depth 226 feet. Use, sawmill purposes. Analysis 
made by State Chemist, 1907. Record p. 90, No. 42. 

Total solids 273 parts per million, consisting of calcic carbon- 
ate, sodium chloride, and magnesium sulphate, set down according 
to the relative preponderance. No organic matter present. 



A. A. Thompson, Astor, Lake Co. Depth 82 feet; use, 
hotel purposes. Analysis for the State Survey by the 
State Chemist, 1907. Record p. 90, No. 51. 

Ingredients. Parts per mill. 

Calcium oxide (CaO) 233.0 

Magnesium oxide (MgO) 89.6 

Sulphate (SO^) 107.5 

Chlorine (CI ) 801.9 

Silica (SiOj) 11.0 

Tortal solids 1793.0 

Dibble and Earnest, Eustis, Lake Co. Depth 173 feet. 
Use, domestic purposes. Analysis for the State Survey 
by the State Chemist, 1907. Record p. 90, No. 52. 

Ingredients. Parts per mill. 

Calcium oxide (CaO) 32.0 

Magnesium oxide (MgO) 6.88 

Sulphate (SO^r) 11.52 

Chlorine (CI ) 7.00 

Ferric oxide (FejOs) 0.30 

Silica (SiOa) 19.00 

Volatile matter 9.00 

r-. 

Total solids , 123.00 



UNDERGROUND WATER SUPPLY. 79 

Leesburg Ice Co., Leesburg. Depth 98 feet; use, city 
supply. Analysis Diade by Fidelity & Casualty Co., N. Y. 
Record p. 90, No. 56. 

Ingredients. Parts per mill. 

Carbonate of lime 85.91 

Sulphate of lime trace 

Sodium and Potassium sulphates trace 

Nitrate of lime 5.62 

Sodium and Potassium chlorides 34.97 

Oxide of aluminum and iron 3.18 

Total encrusting solids 129.02 

Total non-encrusting solids 41.17 

Total solids 170.20 

Otter Creek Lumber Co., Otter Creek, Levy Co. Depth 
85 feet; use, sawmill purposes. Analysis by H. Herzog, 
Jr., 1903. Record p. 92, No. 71. 

Ingredients. Parts per mill. 

Carbonate of lime 237.95 

Carbonate of magnesium 6.68 

Chlorine 6.00 

Ferric oxide 7.88 

Alumina 1.88 

Silica 18.00 

Organic matter .' 37.88 

Mineral matter 281.15 

Total solids 319.21 

Williston Mfg. Co., Williston, Levy Co. Depth 60 feet; 
use, ice manufacture. Analysis by Iroquois Mfg. Co. T. L. 
Crowbaugh, Chemist, 1907. Record p. 92, No. 72. 

Ingredients. Parts per mill 

Carbonate and sulphate of lime 123.43 

Magnesia 51.43 

Sulphuric acid 152.58 

Chlorine 36.00 

Oxide of iron and alumina some 

Silica not determined 

Total solids 534.88 



80 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. 

S. H. Gaitskill, Mcintosh, Marion Co. Depth 54 feet; 
use, general purposes. Analysis by State Chemist, 
(M 1006, 1908.) Kecord p. 92, No. T7. 

Total solids 145 parts per million, consisting of sodium chlo- 
ride, calcium carbonate, and sodium sulphate. Organic matter, 
slight. 

Ocala Water Co., Ocala, Marion Co. Depth 1250 feet; 
use, city supply. Analysis U. S. Geological Survey, 1907. 
Record p. 92, No. 79. 

Ingredients. Parts per mill. 

Calcium (Ca) 151. 

Magnesium (Mg) 25. 

Sodium and Potassium (Na K) 18. 

Iron (Pe) 0.02 

Carbonate (CO3) 7.7 

Bicarbonate (HCO3) 240. 

Sulphate (SO^ ) 266. 

Chlorine (CI ) 18. 

Nitrate (NO3) 0.22 

Phosphate (PO4 ) trace 

Silica (SiOj) 21. 

Total solids 659. 

Ocala Water Co., Ocala, Marion Co. Depth 190 feet; 
use, city reserve supply. Analysis for State Survey by 
State Chemist. Record p. 92, No. 78. 

Ingredients. Parts per mill. 

Magnesium oxide (CaO) 171.00 

Sulphate (MgO) 37.33 

Chlorine (SOj) 179.40 

Ferric oxide (CI ) 19.85 

Volatile matter (Fes03) absent 

Alumina oxide ( Al;r030) 12.00 

Silica (SiOif) 66.00 

Non-Volatile matter 584.00 

Total solids 652.00 



UNDERGROUND WATER SUPPLY. 81 

Public Well, Dade City, Pasco Co. Depth 53 feet ; use, 
public. Analysis by A. W. Blair. 1900. Eecord p. 92, 
No. 83. 

Ingredients. Parts per mill. 

Hardness 98.23 

Chlorine 12.00 

Nitrogen as nitrates 1.44 

Nitrogen as nitrites none 

Free ammonia 000 

Albuminoid ammonia 015 

Total solids 147. 

Muller and Zinsser, Dade City, Pasco Co. Depth 4.5 
feet; use, ice manufacture. Analysis by U. S. Geological 
Survey. Record p. 92, No. 84. 

Ingredients. Parts per 

million. 

Calcium (Ca) ^ 58. 

Magnesium (Mg) 4.2 

Sodium and Potassium (Na. K) 9.1 

Iron and alumina (Pe Al) trace 

Carbonate (CO3) 0.0 

Bicarbonate (HCO3) 191. 

Sulphate (SO^) 2.2 

Chlorine (CI ) 13. 

Nitrate (NO3) 0.55 

Phosphate (POj ) trace 

Silica (SiO.J 20. 

Total solids 204. 

Atlantic Coast Line R. R., Trilby, Pasco Co Depth 31 
feet; use, boiler purposes. Analysis by U. S. Geological 
Survey, 1907. Record p. 92, No. 93. 

Ingredients. Parts per 

million. 

Calcium (Ca) 39. 

Magnesium (Mg) 1-2 

Sodium and Potassium (Na K) 6.6 

Iron and alumina (Fe Al) 0.49 

Carbonate (CO3) 0.0 

Bicarbonate (HCO^) 113. 



82 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. 

Sulphate (SO^) 2.8 

Chlorine (CI ) 5.4 

Nitrate (NO3) 1.6 

Phosphate (PO^) 2.0 

Silica (SiO^) .' 16. 



Total solids 136. 

City Well, Live Oak, Suwannee Co. Depth 1080 feet; 
tiise, city water supply. Analysis by the U. S. Geological 
Survey, 1907. Eecord p. 94, No. 107. 

Ingredients. Parts per 

million. 

Calcium (Ca) 68. 

Magnesium (Mg) 5.7 

Sodium and Potassium (Na K) 7.2 

Iron and alumina (Fe Al) 0.04 

Carbonate (CO 3) 0.00 

Bicarbonate (HCO3) 224. 

Sulphate (SOj) . .*. 8.9 

Chlorine (CI ) 3.9 

Nitrate (NO") 0.6 

Silica (SiOf) 17. 

Total solids 219. 

R. L. Dowling, Live Oak, Suwannee Co. Depth 200 feet; 
use, formerly used for sawmil purposes. Analysis taken 
from Waiter Supply Paper U. S. Geol. Sur. No. 102. Ana- 
lyst not given. Eecord p. 94, No. 108. 

Ingredients. Parts per 

million. 

Calcium carbonate 163.2 

Lime, calcium sulphate 25.5 

Magnesium carbonate 14.9 

Na. & Potass, sulphates trace 

Na. & Potass, chlorides 17.2 

Iron & Aluminum oxides 2.5 

Silica . . . : 12.9 

Total solids 237.2 



UNDERGROUND WATER, SUPPLY. 
WATER SUPPLY TABLES. 



83 



General Water Resources. 





ALACHUA COUNTY. 






TOWN. 


TopograpWc 


Principal 


Siirface 


Principal 


Depth 
deep'st 


location. 


source water 


formation. 


water beds. 


wells, 
feet. 


Alachua 


Rolling .. 


Wells 


Clays 


Limestone 


216 


Archer 


Rolling .. 


Wells .... 


Some clays 


Limestone 




Arredonda .... 


Level 


Wells .... 


Some clays 


Limestone 


125 


Clark 


Rolling . . 


Wells .... 


Some clays Limestone. 




Button 


Rolling . . 


Wells .... 


Some clays 


Limestone 




Evinston 


Hilly .... 


Wells .... 


Some clays 


Limestone 


126 


Gainesville . . . 


Rolling ... 


Wells .... 


Clays 


Limestone. 


847 


Hague 


Rolling . . 


Wells .... 


Clays 


Limestone 




Hawthorn .... 


Rolling . .. 


Wells . . . . 


Clays 


Limestone 




High Springs.. 


Rolling . . 


Wells .... 


Some clays 


Limestone. 




Island Grove.. 


Rolling . . 


Wells .... 


Some clays 


Limestone 




MIcanopy 


Rolling . . 


Wells .... 


Clays 


Limestone 


151 


Newberry .... 


Rolling . . 


Wells .... 


Sandy clay 


Limestone 


123 


Rochelle 


Level 


Wells .... 


Sandy clay 


Limestone 




Waldo 


Level 


Wells 


Clays 


Limestone 


55 



CITRUS COUNTY. 



Crystal River.. 


Rolling . . 


Wells . . 


...Some clay 


Limestone 


1900 


Floral City.... 


Rolling . . . 


Wells . . 


. . Some clays 


Limestone 


'. ( 


Hernando .... 


Rolling . . . 


Wells . . 


. . Some clays 


Limestone 


153 


Holder 


Rolling . . . 


Wells . . 


. . Some clays 


Limestone 


130 


Inverness .... 


Rolling ... 


Wells . . 


. . |Clays 


Limestone 


90 


Lecanto 


Rolling .. 


Wells . . 


. . jciays 


Limestone 


125 



COLUMBIA COUNTY. 



Ft. White 

Lake City . . . 
Watertowik ... 
Winfield 


Rolling... 

Level 

Level 

Level 


Welle 

Wells .... 
Wells .... 
Wells .... 


Clays or 
Limestone 

Clays 

Clays 

Clays 


Limestone 

Limestone 
Limestone 
Limestone 


400 
121 



HAMILTON COUNTY. 



Jasper 


Rolling... 


Wells .... 


Sandy clay 


Limestone 


450 


Jennings 


Rolling. . . 


Wells .... 


Some clays 


Limestone 




West Lake. . . . 


Rolling. . . 


Wells .... 


Clays 


Limestone 




White Springs 


Rolling. . . 


Wells and 
spring 


Clays . . . 


Limestone 


2S6 



*The principal water-bearing beds believed to occur but not 
actually reached by wells are placed in italics. 



84 



FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. 



General Water Kesources — Contirmed. 





HERNANDO COUNTY. 






TOWN. 


Topographic 
location. 


Principal 
source water. 


Surface 
formation. 


Principal 
water beds. 


Depth 
deep' St 

well 
(feet). 


Brooksville. . . . 
Groom 


Hilly 

Rolling. . . 


Wells 

Wells .... 


Clays ILimestone 

Some Clay Limestone 


226 
70 



LAKE COUNTY. 



Altoona 


L/9vel 


Wells .... 


Clays 


Limestone 




Astor 


bevel 

Rolling... 


Wells .... 
Wells .... 


Clays 

Clays 


Limestone 
Limestone 


123 

288 


Eustis 


Grand Island. 


Rolling. . . 


Wells 


Giays 


Limestone 


290 


Leesburg 


Rolling. . . 


Wells .... 


CJiJys 


Limestone 


550 


Mount Dora. . . 


Hilly 


Wells .... 


Clays 


Limestone 


180 


Okahumpka. .. 


Rolling. . . 


Wells .... 


Clays . . . 


Limestone 


110 


Sorrento 


Rolling... 


Wells 


Clays 


Limestone 


103 


Tavares 


Level 


Wells .... 


Clays 


Limestone 




Umatilla 


Rolling. . . 


Wells .... 


Clays 


Limestone 


60 



LEVY COUNTY. 



Albion Rolling. 

Bronson 'Level. . 



Cedar Key. . . . 

Ellzey 

Judson Rolling. . . 



Hilly. 
Lsvel , 



Levy ville . . . 
Otter Creek. 



Level , 
Level . 



Williston Rolling. . . Wells . . 



Wells 
Wells 
Wells 
Wells 
Wells 
Wells 
Wells 



Some clays 
Clays 

Clays 

Some clays 
Some clays 

Clays 

Some clayi 



Limestone 
Limestone 

Limestone 
Limestone 
Limestone 
Limestone 
Limestone 



MARION COUNTY. 



y5 



100 

90 
60 



Anthony 


Rolling. . . 


Wells 


Some claya 


Limestone 


106 


Belleview 


Rolling. . . 


Wells 


Clays 


Limestone 




Boardman 


Rolling. . . 


Wells .... 


Clays 


Limestone 




Calvary 


Rolling. .. 


Wells .... 


Clays 


Limestone 




Citra 


Rolling. . . 


Wells 


Clays 


Limestone 




Dunnellon 


Level 


Wells 


Limestone 


Limestone 


300 


Early Bird 


Rolling. . . 


Wells 


Some clays 


Limestone 




Eureka 


Level 


Wells 


Clays 


i-iimestone 




Ft. McCoy 


Rolling. . . 


Wells 


Clays 


Lim^estone 




Juliette 


Rolling. . . 


Weils 


Clnys 


Limestone 


361 


Martel 


Rolling. . . 


Wells 


Cjays. .... 


Limestone 


72 



♦The principal water-bearing beds believed to occur but not 
actually reached by wells are placed in italics. 



UNDERGROUND WATER SUPPLY. 



85 



General Water Resources — Continued. 
MARION COUNTY — Continued. 



Ocala 

Orange Spring. 

Reddick 

Rock Springs. . 
Silver Spring. 
Sparr 



Rolling, . 
Level .... 
Rolling. . 
Rolling. . 

Level 

Rolling. . 



Wells. 
Wells . 
Wells. 
Wells . 
Wells. 
Wells. 



Ciays [Limestone 

iLimestone 

Clays \Limestone 

Limestone 
Limesione. 
Limestone 



Some clay? 



Some clay 



1250 



78 
507 
132 



PASCO COUNTY. 



Dade City 

Hudson 

Lacoochee 

Pasco 

Richland 

San Antonio . . . 

St. Leo 

Trilby 



Rolling. 
Level . . 
Rolling. 
Rolling. 
Rolling. 
Hilly... 
Hilly... 
Level . . , 



Wells. 
Wells , 
WeiiS , 
Wells , 
Wells, 
Wells , 
^ells, 
Wells 



Clays 
Clays 
Some 
Some 
Some 
Clays 
CJays 
Clays 



clay? 
clays 
clay? 



Limestone 
Limestone 
Limestone 
Limestone 
Limestone 
Limestone 
Limestone 
Limestone 



SUWANNEE COUNTY. 



90 
270 

90 
165 

75 
85 





SUMTER COUNTY. 






Center Hill . . 


Rolling. . . 


Wells 


Some clays 


Limestone 




Coleman 


Rolling. . . 


Wells. . . . 


Some clays 


Limestone 




/^,.>" - .,,1 


Rolling. . . 


Wells 


Some clays 


Limestone 


110 


jt-anasoffkee. , . 


Level 


Wells 


Some clays 


Limestone 




Sumterville . . . 


Rolling. . . 


Wells 


Some clays 


Limestone 




Webster 


Level 


Wells 


Some clays 


Limestone 




Wildwood 


L-cvel 


Wells 


Some clays 


Limestone 





Branf ord 


Rolling. 




Wells 


Cays 


Limestone 


60 


Dowling Park. 


Rolling. 




Wells 


Clays 


Limestone 


100 


Falmouth 


Rolling. 




Wells 


Clays 


Limestone 


96 


Live Oak ..... 


Rolling. 




Wells 


Clays 


Limestone 


1080 


Luraville 


Rolling. 




Wells 


Clays . . . . 


Limestone 


106 


O'Brien 


Rolling. 




Wells 


Clays 


Limestone 




Pinemount. . . . 


Rolling. 




Wells 


Clays 


Limestone 


108 


Suwannee 


Rolling. 




Wells . 


Clays 


Limestone 




Welborn. . 


Rolling. 




Wells 


Clays 


Limestone 


"" 63 



♦The principal water-bearing beds believed to occur but not 
actually reached by wells are placed in italics. 



Q^ 



1^ FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. 



SPRINGS. 



County. 



Nearest Town 
or Fostoffice. 



Direction 

and 
Distance. 



Name of Spring. 



Flow. 

Gals. 

per 

Min. 



Topographic 
Surroundingfl. 



Alachua. . 
Alachua. . 
Alachua. . 
Alachua. . 

Citrus 

Citrus 

Columbia, 
Hamilton. 
Hernando, 
Hernando . 

Lake 

Lake. . 

Levy 

Levy 

Levy 

Levy 

Marion . . . 
Marion . . . 
Marion . . . 
Sumter. . . 
Suwannee 
Suwannee 



Gainesville . . 
Hawthorn . . . 
High Sp'gs . . . 

Melrose 

Crystal Rvr. . 
Homosassa.. 
Ft. White... 
White Sp'gs. 

Bay Port 

Bay Port 

Okahumpka. 

Sorrento 

Bronson 

Otter Creek. 
Otter Creek. 
Levyville .... 

Juliette 

Norwalk. .. . . 
Silver Spring 
Sumterville. . 
Suwannee . . . 
Falmouth .... 



2 mi. se . 
4 mi. sw. 

3 mi. w . . 
imi. se. , 
i mi s . . . 
7 mi. s . . , 
6 mi. nw. 
Near. . . . 

mi. se . 
2 mi. ne . 
imi. n. . 
21 mi. ne 
3^ mi. w. 



lOmi. e. . 
12 mi. w. 
Near. . . . 
3 mi. w. . 

Near 

f mi.n.. 
Imi. ne. 
Near .... 



Boulware 

Magnesia 

Poe 

Ford Spg. 

Crystal River 

Chesehouiska 

Ichatucknee 

V/hite Sul. Spgs... 
Weekiwachee Spgs 

Sulphur. .; 

Bug 

Seminole 

Blue.. 

Wekiva 

Sulphur 

Manatee , 

Blue 

Salt 

Silver Spring 

Branch Mill Spg. . . 

kiwannee Sulphur 
Newland 



175 

2.500 



Sandy uplands..,. 

Swampy 

44,760 1 Hammock 

Low hammock. . . 
Swampy,,!,. 



200,000 



1,500 
25,200 
25,000 
35,395 

5.000 



180,000 Hammock 

32,400 Bank of river. . . 
100,000 Sandy scnih 

Swampy 

Sandy 

Sandy 

Swampy bayhead 

Pine woods 

Swampy 

Rolling 

349,166 Rolling 

84.000 Rolling 

368,913 Level 

21,759 1 Rolling, rocky . , . 
19,747 1 Rolling hammock 

75.000 1 Rolling 



The measurement of flow of Ichtucknee, Silver, Blue, and 
recorded in Water Supply Papers U. S. Geol. Survey No. 102 and 
mated by B. F. Miller. The flow of the remaining springs is based 



UNDERGROUND WATER SUPPLY. 



8T 



SPRINGS. 



Use of Spring. 



OAvner of Spring. 



Character of 
Water. 



Nature of Stream. 



City supply- 
Drinking . . . 
Bathing .... 
Drinking. . . 

Ice mf g 

Not used . . . 
Not used . . . 

Resort 

Not used . . . 
Not used . . . 
Not used . . . 
Not used...i 
Not used. . . 
Not used . . . 
Not used . . 
Not used. . ' 
NoT^used . . 

Resort 

Resort 

Mill dam.. 

Resort 

Not used . . . 



City. 
R. C. 



Brown . 



Navigable water. 



M. M. Jackson 

Wilder & McClure. 
S. V. Varn 



Partly soft. .. . 
Some sulphur. 



Wilson Cypress Co. 

W. R. Colter 

W. R. Colter 

Cummer Lbr. Co. . . 



W. C. Townsend . . . 



D. S. Belton 

Suwannee Spgs. Co. 
Davis 



Some sulphur. 
Hard, clear . . . 
Hard, clear . . . 
Hard, clear . 

Sulphur 

Hard, clear... 

Sulphur 

Hard, clear. . . 
Partly hard . . 
Hard, clear. . . 
Hard, clear. . . 

Sulphur 

Hard, clear. . . 
Hard, clear. . . 

Saflne 

Hard, clear. . . 
Hard, clear. . . 

Sulphur 

Hard, clear. 



Enters branch. | . . 
Small. 

Flows into Santa Fe. 
Flows into Melrose Lakt 
Head of Crystal River. 
Head of Chesehouiska Riv 
Head Ichatucknee River. 
Enters Suwannee River. 
Head Weekiwachee River 



Stream to Lake Harris. 
Small stream. 
Head Weklva River. 
Small stream. 
Enters Suwannee River. 
Head Weklva Creek- 
Enters Lake George. 
Head Silver Springs Run 
Small stream. 
Enters Suwannee River. 



Suwannee Sulphur Springs were made by M. R. Hall, and are 
No. 204. The flow of Boulware Spring at Gainesville was esti- 
upon estimates made by the State Survey. 



88 



FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. 



Wells. 

ALACHUA 



No, 



1 
.2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 
8 
9 
10 



N earest Town 
or P. O. 



Alachua. . . 
Alachua. . . 
Archer. .. . 

Clyatt 

Gainesville . 
Gainesville. 
Gainesville . 
Micanopy . . 
Newberry. . 
Rochelle. . . 



Direction 

and 
Distance. 



i mi. s. . 
i mi. s. . 
Near. . . . 



2 ml. se.. . 

3 blks. nw 
1 mi.n.. . . 
i mi. n. . . 

Near 

Near 



O^ner of Well. 



Alachua Ice Co. . . 
F. E. Williams... 

S. A. L 

¥. H. Clyatt 

City 

Diamond Ice Co.. 

B. F. Williamson. 

C. E. Melton...., 

C. D. May , 

A. C. L 



Driller. 



W. F. Hamilton. . « . ^ 
S. W. Young.... *^,^, 

J. Hancock * . . «, 

H. D. Lewis 

J. D. Allen 

W. F. Hamilton 

J. D. Allen 

Dibble & Earnest . . . 
G. W. Livingston . . . 



CITRUS 



11 
12 
13 
14 
15 
16 
17 
18 
19 
20 



Crystal River 
Floral City.., 
Floral City. . . 
Floral City... 
Hernando . . . . 
Hernando . . . . 

Holder 

Holder 

Inverness . . . . 
Lecanto 



2 mi. n.. . 
1 mi. w. . . 
li mi. w. . 
x^ mi. ne.. 
1 mi. s. 

1 mi. nw. . 
1-i mi. ne. 

2 mi. e 

li mi. w. . 
1 mi. n. . . . 



Pearson Oil Co. . . . 
Bradley Phos. Co.. 
Bradley Phos. Co.. 

D. A. Tooke 

Dunnellon Phos.Co. 
Dutton Phos. Co. . . 
Buttgenbach P. Co. 
Buttgenbach P. Co. 

Mutual Min. Co 

W.A.Allen 



A. C. Johnson . . . 
A. C. Johnson . . . 

D. A. Tooke 

Mclver& McKay. 

J. O. Edson 

J. O. Edson 

J. O. Edson 

J. O. Edson 

Owner 



COLUMBIA 



21 
22 
23 
24 
25 
26 
27 
28 
29 
30 



Bass 

Brown. . . . 
Ft. White. 
Lake City . 
Lake City . 
Lake City . 
Lake City . 
Winfield.. 
Winfield . . 
Winfield.. 



N&ar. . . 
Near. . . 

i mi. n.. 
Near . . . 
2 mi. w. 
10 mi. 6. 
i mi. s.. 

2 mi. w. 



E. M. Curington. 

W. H. Allen 

M. B. Parsonage.. 

City 

City 

J. A. Coombs . . . . 

H. W. Lamb 

J. L. Roberts 

D. G. Rivers 

Union Church . . . 



C. M. Ray 

C. M. Ray 

C. M. Ray 

V/. F. Hamilton. 



C. M. Ray 

C. M. Ray 

E. H. Mcllvane . 

C. M. Ray. 

C. M. Ray 



HAMILTON 



31 1 Jasper. 
32 Jasper. 
33 1 Jasper. 



1 mi. s. . 
6 mi: w: 
Near . . . . 



Frank Bamberg. 

Jim Bird 

City Power Co. . . 



R. F. Conine. . . 
R. F. Conine. . . 
Hugh Partridge. 



UNDERGROUND WATER SUPPLY. 



89 






216 

60 

61 

62 

194 

316 

276 

151 

113 

225 



Wells. 

COUNTY. 



5rt =" 

S.S 



6 
2 
2 
3 
12 






6b 



160 
150 
110 



> 5> 

o o 



80 
100 
.-82 
176 
180 

76 
80 



o 

OJtH 



-106 

- 58f 

- 40 

- 32 

- 31.32 

- 121 
-128 

- 38 

- 40 

- 10 



Use of Well. 



Ice mf g 

Household . . , 

General 

Irrigation. . . 
City supply . 

Ice mf g 

Mfg. supply. 
Saw mill. . . . 
Household . . . 
Boiler use . . . 

COUNTY. 



Mineral 
Character 
of Water. 



Hard 
Hard 
Hard 
Hard 
Hard 
Hard 
Hard 
Hard 
Hard 
Hard 






4J c3 

5z< 



76 



76 
76 

77 



No. 



1 

2 
3 
4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 



1900 








140 


8 


50 


.... 


130 


2 


125 


.... 


73 


2 


73 


.... 


152 


12 


70 


70 


142 


10 


.... 


65 


100 


12 


42 


.... 


145 


12 


72 


.... 


127 


10 


44 


75 


97 


2 


97 






Flows . 

— 35 

— 40 

— 36 

— 50 

— 35 

— 45 

— 54 

— 47 

— 89 



Phosphate mining 
Drinking 

General 

Phosphate mining 
Phosphate mining 
Phosphate mining 
Phosphate mining 
Phosphate mining 
Household 




COUNTY. 



75 


2 


.... 


188 


62 


2 


51 


106 


68 


2 


2 


.... 


400 


10 


100 


200 


400 








122 


2 


122 


.... 


134 


2 


134 


.... 


121 


2 


115 


115 


108 


2 


.... 


126 


92 


2 


80 






— 60 

— 55 

— 61 
—134 
—120 

110 

128 

■ 70 

60 

— 85 



General .... 
General .... 
Household . . 
City supply. 
City supply. 
General .... 
General . . . . 
General .... 
General .... 
General 



Hard | 

Hard | 

Hard | 

Hard sulph'rj 

Hard | 

Hard 

Hard 

Haid 

Hard 

Hard 



77 
77 



21 

22 
23 

24^ 
2S 

26; 

2T 
28 
29 
■60 



COUNTY. 


110 


2 


.... |— 60 


Household 


Hard 


31 


104 


2 


....}— 70 


Household 


Hard 


32 


450 


8 .... 


....-60 


City supply 


Sulphur 


33 



7GeolBul-l 



90 



PliOEIDA GEOLOGICAL SUEVBT. 



We lls — Continued. 

HAMILTON 



No. 


Nearest Town 
or P. 0. 


Direction 

and 
Distance. 


Owner of Well. 


Driller. 


. 84 


Marion 

White Springs 
White Springs 
White Springs 
White Springs 
White Springs 
White Springs 


Near 

1 mi. nw.. 

I mi. n.. . 

Near 

imi, se 


S. Hall 


Hi»nry Ratcliff 

Owner 

C. M. Ray 


35 
36 

.^7 


Dr. B. F. Camp 

Camp Lbr. o 

N. Adams 


38 
39 
40 


G. S. Mobley 

J. M. Morgan 

W. B. Telford 


C. T. Lowe 

C. T Lowe 

B. H. Mcllvane 



HERNANDO 



41|Brooksville. 
42|Brooksville. 
43|Brooksville. 
44|Brooksville. 
45|Brooksville. 
46|Brooksville. 
47|Brooksville 

48|Croom iNear. . . 

49'llstachatta. . . 3 mi. w 
SOIRural 1 



I mi. s. . . 

1 mi. s.. . 
4 mi. n.. , 
4 mi. n.. 
* mi. e. . 

2 mi. e.. . 
2-5 mi. e. 



Brooks. Ice Co.. . . 
Hoopes Bros. & Dar. 

W. A. Fulton 

W. A. Fulton 

Mercer-Muller Lbr. Ct 

Pole & Tie Co 

L. B. Varn 

A. C. L 

W. A. Fulton 

J. J. McDonough . . 



D. Allen. 
D. Allen. 
D. Allen. 
D. Allen. 
D. Allen. 
D. Allen. 
D. Allen. 
D. Allen. 
D. Allen. 
D. Allen. 



LAKE 



51| 
52 1 
53 1 
:54| 
:55} 
:56 

!57 
58 
59 
60 



Astor 


Near 


Bustis 


7 blks. se.. 


Grand Island 


Near 


Leesburg 


Near 


Leesburg 


2 mi. w. . . 


Leesburg 


I mi. s 


ML Dora 


J mi. nw. 


Sorrento 


11 mi. se. 


Tavares 


k mi. e... 


Whitney 


i mi. w. . . 



A. A. Thompson 

Dibble & Barnest 

Fla. Fertilizer Co. . . 

City 

J. T. Bgbert. . ." 

Leesburg ice Co 

S. M. Weld 

L. B. Jones 

Osceola Hotel 



S. H. Hoagland . . 
Dibble &Barne6t. 
Dibble & Barnest. 

Padgett 

John Heaton .... 
John Heaton .... 
Dibble & Earnest. 

Owner 

Sears 



iZ. Spinks .i J. Heaton, 



LEVY 



61 


Albion 




J. Medlin 


Jas. Hancock 


62 


Cedar Koy. .. 


Near. 


Cedar Key Town Co.. 


Owner 


G3 


Double Sink. 


Near .... 


Public School 


James Hancock. . . . 


64 


Ellzey 


5 mi. n.. .. 


T. W. Shands & Co. . . 


James Hancock. . . . 


65 


Lebanon 


1^ mi. nw 


Tom King 


E. L. Freyermeuth . . 



UNDERGROUND WATER SUPPLY. 



91 



Wells — Gofitiniied'. 
COUNTY — Continued. 



P«4H 
<D ^ 


Q.S 


a.5 




Head from 
surface. 


Use of Well. 


Mineral 
character 
of water. 


4; 

o c 


No. 


160 
160 
150 
80 
157 
126 


2 
2 
8 
2 
2 
2 


100 
2 

40 




— 60 

— 60 

— 50 

— 77 

— 35 

— 40 

— 11 


Hoa behold 

Sawmill 

Household 

Household 

General 


Hard 

Hard sulph'r 
Hard sulph'r 

Hard 

Hard 

Hard 

Sulphur 


' 


34 

35 
36 
37 
38 
39 


208 


Hotel purposes . . . 


40 



8 


110 1 


26 —103 


8 


79 1 


28 —108 


10 


50 .. 


.. — 8 to 10 


10 


50 .. 




4 


80 .. 




6 


40 .. 


.. — 60 


6 





. . —126 


8 
10 


40 .. 


.. — 16 

.. — 8 


8 


40 .. 


.. — 20 



COUNTY. 

Ice mfg 

Sawmill purposes 

Drainage 

Drainage 

Sawmill 

General 

flousehold 

R. R. boiler use. . 
Phosphate mining 



Hard 




41 


Hard 


78 


42 


Hard 




4S 


Hard 




44 


Hard 




45 


Hard 




46 


Hard 




47 


Hard 




48 


Hard 




49 


Hard 




50 



COUNTY. 



3 


75 


15 


5t 


134 


.... 


H 


107 


.... 


2 


.... 


.... 


4 


84 


.... 


4 


95 


87 


6 


114 


.... 


2 


67 


.... 


2 


124 


66 


3 


240 


.... 



+ 14 
— 62 



18 
16 
20 
60 
70 



11 



Hotel 

Domestic 

General 

xublic 

Irrigation 

General 

Ice mfg. City sup'y 

Household 

Hotel 

Brick plant 



Hard sulph'r 
Part soft. . . 

Soft 

Hard 

Hard 

Hard 

Hard 

Part hard . . 
Part soft . . . 
Hard 



78 
78 



79 



51 
52 
53 
54 
55 
56 
57 
58 
59 
60 



COUNTY. 



2 

6 

2 I ' 

2 I 

2 |, 40 



45 
11 
36 
10 
9 



Abandoned 

Drinking 

Turpentine still. . 



Sawmill purposes Hard 



Hard ,. . . 
Brackish 
Hard . . . 
Hard ... 



61 
62 
63 
64 
65 



92 



FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. 



Wells — Gowtinued. 

LEVY 



No. 


Nearest Town 
or P. 0. 


Dieection 

and 
Distance. 


Owner of Well. 


Driller. 


€6 


Levyville 

Montbrook. .. 
Morriston .... 
Morriston .... 
Otter Greek.. 
Otter Creek. . 
Williston 


Near 

8 mi. e.. . . 

Near 

Near 


G. Garter 


Owner 


67 


S. Blitch 


James Hancock 


68 
69 
70 
71 

7^ 


P. King 

A. G. L. R. R 

Fisher & Shands 

OtterGreek Lbr.Go. . . 
Williston Mfg. Go. . . 


Jam€ts Hancock 

James Hancock 

James Hancock 

John. Acre , 











MARION 



Near 

21 mi. nw. 

Near 

Near 

Near 

4 blks. se. 
4 blks. se. 
mi. n.. . 

Near 

I mi. e. . . 



73 

74 

75 

76 

77 

78 

79 

80 

81! Rock Springs 

82 1 Silver Springs 



Dunnellon . . . 

Juliette 

Leroy 

Mcintosh .... 

Mcintosh 

Ocala 

Ocala 

Ocala 



City 

Button Phos. Go. . . . 

Public 

W. E. Allen 

S. H. Gaitskill 

Ocala Water Go 

Ocala Water Go 

Ocala loe & Pack. Go 
Metfert & Maynard . . 
B.P.W.Rentz Lbr.Go. . 



J. D. Allen 

Hughes Spec.Go 

\1 L. Freyermeuth. 

Furgeson 

Furgeson 



K F. Joyce 

W. F. Hamilton . . 
E.L.Freyermeuth , 
H. F. Lloyd 



PASCO 



83 

84 
85 
86 
87 
88 
89 
90 
91 
92 
93 



Dade City 

Dade City 

Fivay 

Fivay , 

Odessa 

Pasadena. . . . 
Port Richey. . 

Richland 

San Antonio. 

St. Leo 

Trilby 



Near 

i mi. se.. 

Near 

Near 

Near 

Near. . . . . 

4 mi. n. . , 
Near 

5 mi sw . . 

Near 

Near 



City 

Muller & Zinsser . . 
Aripeka Sawmill . , 
Aripeka Sawmill . , 

Gulf Pine Go 

The Spencer Well. . 
Stubbs Bros. & Co. 

A. C. L. R. R 

J. S. Flanagan . . . . 
Dr. J. F Gorrigan. 
A. G. L. R. R 



W. A. Sparkman. 
W. A. Sparkman . 

J. D. Allen 

J. D. Allen 

T. J. Zimmermaa. 

N. C. Bryant 

J. D. Allen 

J. D. Allen 

W. A. Sparkman.. 

Owner 

W. A. J. Prescott. 









SUMTER 




94 


Center Hill... 


Near 


F. D. Smith 


J. H. Robbins 


95 


Center Hill... 


Near 


Venable & Harkness . 


J. H. Robbins 


96 


Oxford 


I mi. nw. . 


H. 0. Collier 


E.L.Freyermeuth. . . 


97 


Oxford J 


Near 


J. F. T,avine 


E.L. Freyermeuth 



UNDBRGEOUND WATER SUPPLY. 



9S 



ft.S 



Wells — Continued. 
COUNTY — Gontmued. 



fH UO 




<E a) 




^"S 


bc+j 


Sd 


!=! S^ 


es-ri 


tn«tH 


P.S 


a.s 


2 


28 


2 


42 


2 


40 


5 


40 


2 


79 


4 


.... 


4 


22 



a> O 



S 



Use of Well. 



Mineral 
character 
of water. 



o a 



No. 



29 



— 11 

— 23 

— 16 

— 18 
—7 to 

— 8 

— 20 



General , 



R. R. boiler use. 
Turpentine still, 

Sawmill 

ice mfg , 



Hard 
Hard 
Hard 
Hard 
Hard 
Hard 





66 




67 




68 




69 




7d 


79 


71 


79 


72 



COUNTY. 



6 


90 


50 


14 


280 


90 


2 


.... 


85 


2 


50 


77 


2 


45 


65 


12 


.... 


.... 


8 




100 


42 


172 


65 


2^ 


78 


70 


2 





45 



— 20 

— 54 

— 42 

— 40 

— 27 

— 72 
—70 

— 21 

— 30 

— 5 



City bupply 

Phosphate mining 

Public 

Domestic 

Domestic 

City supply 

City supply 

^ce mfg 

Sawmill and still. 
Sawmill purposes 



Hard 




Hard 




Hard 




Hard 


80 


Hard 


80 


Hard sulph'r 


80 


Hard 




Hard 




Hard sulph'r 





72 

74 
75 
76 
77 
78 
79 
80 

ol 

S2 



COUNTY. 



2 
6 
6 
6 
4 
8 
6 
8 
5 
3 
10 



50 
45 
40 
40 
35 
170 
30 

82 
71 
19 



88 



57 



93 

191 
29 



35 

17 

6 

8 

11 

86 

14 

30 

80 

32 

5 



Public 

Ice mfg 

Sawmill purposes 
Sawmill purposes 
Sawmill purposes 

Turp. still supply 
R. R. boiler u?e. 

Irrigation 

Domestic 

R. R. boiler use . . 

COUNTY. 

Irrigation. ....... 

Public 

General 

General 



Hard 

Hard 

Hard 

Hard 

Hard 

Hard 

Hard 

Partly hard. 

Hard 

Hard 

Hard 



81 
81 



81 



8a 

84 
85 
86 
87 
8S 
89 
9* 
91 
92 

9a 



li 


45 


91- 


4 


40 


93 


2 


80 


100 


2 


60 


100 



— 10 

— 14 

— 50 

— 52 



Hard 

Partly hard, 

Hard 

Hard , 



94 
95 
96 
97 



94 



FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. 



Wells — Continued. 

SUMTER 



No 



Nearest Town 
or P. O. 



Diroctio.n 

and 
Distance. 



Owner of .Well. 



Driller. 



98 
99 
100 
101 
102 
103 



Oxford ...... 

Oxford. 

Sumterville. . 
Sumterville. . 

Webster 

Webster 



1 mi. s. . , 

Near 

Near. . . . 
2i mi. s. 
Near. 



i mi. w. 



.J. S. Rees© 

Sunset Crate&Lbr.Co 

City 

PoarFon Oil Co. 

J. W. Fussell... 

W B. Kimbrougb . . . 



B.L.Preyermeuth , 
W. F. Hamilton . . 
B. F. Smith 



C. L. Eaddy. . 
J. H. Robbins, 



SUWANNEE 



104 
105 
106 
107 
108 
109 
110 
111 
112 
113 



Branford 

Bowling Park 

Falmouth 

Live Oak 

Live Oak 

Live Oak 

Live Oak 

Luraville 

Pinemount. . . 



Near 

Near 

i mi. sw.. 
4 blks. s. . 
1 mi. nw. . 
9 mi. nw. . 
7i mi. nw 
1 mi. n. . . 
Near 



Welborn 7 mi. s W. B. Howell 



Vernan Ginning Co. 

H. J. Cannon , 

F. W. Millinor & Co. 

City 

R. L. Bowling 

W. R. Jenkins 

W. A. Nobles 

Neutral Mining Co.. 
F. M. Green 



W. A. Gaston. 
P. W. Warren, 
W. B. Hicks. . 



W. B. Hicks . 

Tucker 

S. W. Young 
H. Clanton . . 
C. M. Ray... 







Public Water Supplies. 








TOWN. 


Source. 




Wells. 


Relation 
to Town. 


Standpipe 
capacity. 


COUNTY. 


Ownership. 


No. 


Diam. 


Depth 



Alachua 
Columbia . 

Hamilton . 
Lake 



Marion . . . 
Marion. . . 

Suwannee 



Gain'sville 


Well, Spg. 


Lake City 


Well... 


Jasper. . . . 


Well . . . 


Leesburg . 


Wells. . 


Dimnellon 


Well . . . 


Ocala. . . . 


Wells . . 


Live Oak. 


Well . . . 



Public . , 
Public . . 

Private , 
Private . 



Public. , 
Private. 

Public . 



1 


12 


194 


1 


10 


400 


1 


8 


450 


3 


4 


98 
to 




2i 


101 


1 


8 


155 


2 


12 


190 




8 


1250 


1 


6 


1080 



90 ft. lower 
samo level 

same level 
same level 



same level 
same level 

same level 



none 
none 

50,000 
20,000 



40,00a 
112,000 

85,000 



UNDEBGROUND WATER SUPPLY. 



95 



Wells — Continued. 
COUNTY — Continued. 






^ «3 


be 4^ 


o o 






OJjTH 


ao<*-i 


a> 2 


S.S 


a.s 


M^ 



06'*"' 



Use of Well. 



Mineral 
Character 






O C 



No. 



101 
102 

loa 



92 
74 
86 
2002 
132 
50 



4 


.... 


77 


4 


.... 


100 


1^ 


.... 


.... 


10 


.... 


.... 


2 


130 


.... 


4 


30 


89 



'61i 

55 

21 

5 

8 

5 



Irrigatiou 

Gen. mill purpose 
Greneral 



General . . . 
Irrigation . 



Hard 

Hard 

Hard 

Hard sulph'r 

Hard 

Hard 

Hard . . . . .T 
Sulphur . . . 

Hard 

Hard 

Hard 

Hard 

Hard 

Hard 

Hard 

Hard 



COUNTY. 



60 


2 


45 


43 


91i 


2 


91i 


.... 


84 


3 


60 


.... 


1080 


6 




110 


200 


.6 


.... 


.... 


70 


2 


67 


.... 


98J 


2 


85 


.... 


95 


8 


47 


.... 


87 


2 


87 


.... 


80 


2 


70 






25 
25 
65 
50 
44 
60 
63 
32 
73 
68 



Ginning purposes 

Livery stable 

Turpentine still. . 

City supply 

Sawmill 

Sawmill purposes 

General 

i-iiosphate mining 
Mill purposes .... 
Household 



1 104 

1 105 
1 106. 

821107 



82 



108: 
109 
110 
111 
112 
113 



Public Water Supplies. 






o ■ 



en .5 



Character of Water, 

Hard, soft 

Hard, slightly 

sulphur 

Sulphur, hard . . 
Medium hard . . . 

Hard 

Hard 



o T^ • , ' Notes and 

Sewage Disposal. ■ Analyses. 

I 

Septic tank I P. 70, 76 

Septic tank I P. 77 

No sewage system I 

No sewage system I P. 79 

I 

No sewage system [ 

Bored wells and cesspools. . . I P. 92 



92 



50 


10 


60 


12 


80 


91 


30 1 


5 



11 

6 to 

1 

2i 



83 



37 



Bored wells and cesspools, 



P. 82 



INDEX. 



Page 

Alabama, Geological Survey of, referred to 8 

Acids, formation of hydrogen sulphides by 20 

Alachua County, sketch showing water level in 40 

general water resources of 83 

springs of 86 

wells of 88 

public water supply of, 94 

Alachua Lake 60 

Alachua isavanna, described by Bartram, 59 

Alachua sink, described 56 

level of water in 60 

Alumina removed in solution 48 

Annual rainfall of Florida 12 

Artesian areas, map of, (facing) 44 

Artesian water, hydrogen sulphide in, 23 

Bacteria, effect of septic tank on 66 

Bacillus typhosus, effect of septic tank on, 66 

Bartram, William, cited on formation of sinks 52, 59 

Blair, A. W., water analyses by, 25, 74, 81 

Blue Spring, Levy Co 38 

analysis of water from 73 

amount of mineral solids removed by 47 

Blue Springs, Marion County, relation of, to underground 

water level 30 

mention of 38 

amount of mineral solids removed by 47 

analysis of water 73 

Boulware Spring, analysis < f water from 70 

Cairns, G. D., levels made by, 30 

Calcium carbonate removed in solution 48 

Capillary attraction, water returned to the surface by 15 

Capillary water in soils 24 

Carbon dioxide, abundance of, in deep waters 21 

effect of, on solubility of calcium carbonate 33 

Cavities, formations of, 50 

inter-connection of, 65 

Oemtral Florida, topography of 9 

elevation of -> 

geology of 9 

annual rainfall of 12 

underground water of, 24 



S8 INDEX. 

T^lB. ^ i Page. 

Chandler, C. H., water analysis by 75 

Chesehouiska Springs 38 

Citrus County, general water resources of 83 

springs of 86 

wells of 88 

Columbia County, sketch, illustrating underground water level 

of 31 

general water resources of, 83 

springs of 86 

wells of 88 

public water supply of 94 

Chlorides removed in solution 48 

Contamination, organic 26, 42 

mineral 43 

by sewage wells 65 

Corn, evaporation from the leaves of, 16 

Crowbaugh, T. L., analysis of water by 79 

Crystal River Spring 38 

Dall, W. H., cited on Tampa Limestone 11 

Deposition and replacement 56 

Devil's Mill Hopper, described 29 

Dickoie, W., analyses of water by 70, 71 

Disappearing streams, described 53 

Erosion, rate of 48 

Evaporation, from the surface of the earth. 13 

from the leaves of plants 14, 15 

Falling Creek, described 54 

Flatwoods, described 9 

Florida, annual rainfall of 12 

Florida State Experiment Station, water analyses supplied 

by, 7, 25 

Foraminifera in Vicksburg limestone 10 

Ford Spring, analysis of water from, 71 

Fuller, M. L., cited on sources of underground water 12 

cited on interconnection v^f cavities in the limestone...... 65 

Gainesville, well records of ...;.. 30 

analysis of water from 76, 77 

Georgia, Geological Survey of, referred to 8 

Greene, E. Peck, assistance 7 

Gunter, Herman, assistance 7 

Hamilton County, general water resources of 83 

springs of 86 

wells of 88 

public water supply of 94 



INDEX. 99 

Page. 

Hammocks, described 9 

Hawthorne formation 11 

Hernando County, analyses of spring water from 73 

genBTal water resources of 84 

springs of 66 

wells of 90 

Herzog, H. Jr., water analyses by 77, 79 

High Falls, described 54 

Hilgard, cited on evaporation from plants 16 

Hoskins, cited on depth of underground water 19 

Hydrogen sulphide, in underground water , 19 

sulphur deposits formed from 21 

amount of, influenced by pressure 22 

Iron removed in solution 48 

Iron Spring, analysis of water from 71 

Itchatucknee Spring, analysis of water from 72 

amount of mineral solids removed by 47 

Jacksonville, annual rainfall of 13 

Jupiter, annual rainfall of 13 

Key West, annual rainfall of 13 

King, cited on evaporation from the leaves of plants 15 

Kinnicutt, L. P., cited on effect of septic tank on bacteria. ... 66 

Lake City, analysis of water from 25 

sketch illustrating underground water level at 32 

Lakes, drainage of, by wells, 58 

Lake County, general water resources of 84 

springs of 86 

wells of 90 

public water supply of 94 

Lake Jackson, drained by sinks 58 

LeConte, John, description of Silver Springs 36 

Levy County, sketch showing water level in 40 

sink formed in 53 

general water resources of 84 

springs of 86 

wells of 90 

Loughridge, cited on weight of leaves of citrus trees 16 

Magnesium carbonate, removed in solution 48 

Magnesia Spring, analysis of water from 70 

Manatee Spring 38 

Marion County, sketch showing water level in 40 

general water resources of 84 

springs of 86 

wells of 92 

public water supply of 94 



100 INDEX. 

Page. 

Matson, George C, cited on inter-connection of cavities 6€ 

McCallie, S. W., cited on inter.connection of cavities G5 

Miller, B. F., levels supplied by 30 

Mineral solids removed in solution 47, 48 

Miocene deposits 11 

Newland Spring 38 

analysis of water from 75 

amount of mineral solids removed by 47 

Ocala Limestone, described 10 

Oligocene limestone, anticlinal structure of 10 

Orbitoides, in Vicksburg limestone 10 

Organic matter as a source of hydrogen sulphide 19 

Orlando, drainage by wells at, G2 

records of wells at 30 

Ostwald, cited on formation of hydrogen sulphide 20 

Pasco County, general water resources of 8i 

wells of 92 

Payne's Prairie 56, 59 

Pellew, C. E., water analysis by 75 

Pensacola, annual rainfall of ^ . . . . 13 

Pearce, James, cited on Alachua sink 59 

Peas, evaporation from the leaves of 15 

Phosphoric acid removed in solution 48 

Plants, evaporation from the leaves of 13 

Pleistocene deposits 11 

Pliocene clays 11 

Ponds, drainage of, by wells, 58 

Pratt, N. A., analysis of water by 72 

Pratt N. P., analysis by 73 

Quercus cerris, evaporation from the leaves of 16 

Rainfall entering the earth, estimate of 16 

Salt, or Perrian Spring 38 

analysis of water from 74 

San Antonio, analysis of water from 25 

Scrub lands, described 9 

Sellards, E. H., cited on formation of sinks 50 

cited on inter-connection of cavities 65 

Septic tank, efficiency of 66 

reduction of bacteria in 66 

Sewage, disposal of 64, 66 

Shaler, N. S., cited on formations of cavities 49 

Shallow wells, danger of contamination of 28 

Silica removed in solution -^S 



INDEX. 101 

Page. 

Silver Springs, relation of, to underground water level 31 

affected by rainfall 35 

area of drainage of 36 

description of 36 

analysis of water from 74 

amount of mineral solids removed by 47 

Sink holes, formation of 50 

clogging of, at Orlando 60 

Smith, E. A., cited on Alachua sink 60 

Solution 46 

Solution basins, described 55 

State Chemist, water analyses by 73, 74, 75, 76, 78, 80 

Stokes, cited 20 

Sulphates as a Source of hydrogen sulphides 20 

Sulphides as a source of hydrogen sulphides 20 

Sulphur Springs, analysis of water from 71 

Sulphur water, not evidence of beds of sulphur , 21 

Sulphur, occurrence of, in Florida 22 

Sumter County, general water resources of 85 

springs of 86 

wells of 92 

Superintendents city water supply, assistance of 8 

•Surface formation, character of water of, 24 

analyses of water of 25 

Surface run-off, affected by topography 14 

Suwannee County, general water resources of 85 

springs of 86 

public water supply of 94 

wells of •• . • 94 

Suwannee River 35, 38 

Suwannee Sulphur Springs. ... 38 

analysis of water from 75 

amount of mineral solids removed by 47 

correction of solids removed by 102 

Swamp lands, drainage of, by wells 58 

Tampa, annual rainfall of 13 

Tampa Limestone 11 

Thorpe, cited on formation of hydrogen sulphide 20 

Topography, effect of erosion on 46 

effected by deposition and replacement 56 

Typhoid, effect of septic tank on germs of 66 



102 JNDBX. 

Pag«. 

Underground water, source of 12 

movement of 17, 33 

depth of 18 

hydrogen sulphide in 19 

quantity of 31 

quality of 24, 33 

geological results of 46 

United States Geological Survey, Florida investigations by 7 

water analyses by, 7, 75, 76, 77, 80, 82 

levels at Orlando by 30 

University of Florida, drainage from grounds of 29 

sinks on grounds of 51 

Van Hise, cited on formation of hydrogen sulphide. .. .20, 21, 23 

Vicksburg Limestone, described • 10 

surface) exposure of 27 

source of water of 27 

water level in 29 

dip of 31 

Water analyses 25, 68 

Alachua Ice & Water Co. Alachua 76 

Atlantic Coast Line R. R., Trilby". 81 

Blue Spring, Juliette 7^ 

Blue Spring, Otter Creek 73 

Boulware Spring, Gainesville 70 

City Well, Gainesville, 76 

City W^l, Lake City, 77 

City Well, Live Oak, 82 

Diamond Ice Co., Gainesville, 76 

Dibble & Earnest, Bustis, 78 

Dormitory, Lake City, 25 

Dowling R. L., Live Oak, 82 

Ford Spring, Melrose, 71 

Foster Hall, Lake City, 25 

Gaitskill, S. H., Mcintosh, 80 

Hensley Place, Lf»ke City, 25 

Hoopes Bros. i. Arlington, Brooksville 78 

Ichatucknee Spring, Ft. White, 72 

Iron Spring, Hawthorne, 71 

Leesburg Ice Co. Leesburg, 79 

Magnesia Spring, Hawthorne, 70 

Miller residence, Lake City, 25 

Muller & Zinsser, Dade City, , 81 

Newland Springs, Falmouth, 75 



INDBX. 103 

Ocala Water Co., Ocala, 89 

Ocala Water Co., Ocala, , 80 

Old City Well, Lake City, 77 

Otter Creek Lumber Co., Otter Creek, 79 

Pearson Oil Well, Crystal River -. . . . -. 78 

Perrian Spring, Norwalk, '. 74 

Perry's Corner, Lake City 25 

Public Well, Dade City, 81 

Salt Spring, Norwalk, ; 74 

Silver Springs, Ocala, 74 

Sulphur Springs, Hawthorne, 71^ 

Suwannee Sulphur Springs, Suwannee 75 

Thompson, A. A., Astor 78 

Weekiwachee Springs, Bayport, 73 

White Sulphur Springs, White Springs 72 

Williamson, B. F., Gainesville 77 

Williston Mfg. Co., Williston, 79 

Water level, factors controlling 30 

Weekiwachee Spring 38 

analysis of water from 73 

amount of mineral solids removed by 47 

Wekiva Spring , . '. 38 

Wells, water level in 38 

depth of 39 

cavities reached by 41 

drainage of lakes, ponds, and swamp lands by 58 

natural drainage, 58 

construction of, for drainage purposes 61 

drainage by, at Orlando, 62 

disposal of sewage by, 64 

Well drillers, assistance of 8 

White Sulphur Springs 38 

analysis of water from 72 

amount of mineral solids removed by 47 






"-^e^--^^../^ 



CORRECTION. 

Suwannee Springs — 

flow of, for 52,000, read 19,747 47 

solids removed by, for 207,605, read 78,816 47 



LB D '12 




LIBRARY 




029 708 315 6 



